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The History of Ergonomics Ergonomics (Greek ergon work, nomos natural laws) is a complex branch of applied science that examines humans in relation to the design of systems, objects and environments for human use. Well-known scientist Wojciech Jastrzebowski published an article under the title Rys ergonomic chili nuke o price, opartej na prawdach poczerpnietych z Nauki Przyrody where he used exact term ergonomics. Further Frederick Winslow Taylor discovered the Scientific Management method that can be indirectly related to ergonomics issues. In 1900 s Lillian and Frank Gilbreth continued to work on Winslows method and developed Time and Motions Studies where they tried to find ways and methods able to improve efficiency by discovering and reducing unnecessary actions and steps. One of the suggestions helped bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per one hour (Vink, 350). In such a way ergonomics occupied its outstanding place in science and was accepted as a useful improvement.
Further the term ergonomics was used by group of English scientists gave birth to organization known as Ergonomics Research Society in 1949. Many world countries have their own generally accepted definitions of this term. For example, many long years Russians used term ecology. Americans know ergonomics as human factors (HF), Germans call it anthropo technics.
In the course of the next decades ergonomics underwent drastic changes. At the very beginning of ergonomics as a science scientists placed high emphasis on anthropometry, physiology of work, work design, biomechanics, and psychology. During the ensuing decade ergonomics priorities were reexamined and reordered as follows: safety, work design, biomechanics, work intensity, and human-computer interface. Biomechanics and physiology of work dominate no more. However, they contributed to new aspect related to musculoskeletal disorders stipulated by growth of quantity of computer users. According to Brian Shall, ergonomics underwent the following stages: 1950 s Military ergonomics; 1960 s Industrial ergonomics; 1970 s Ergonomics of consumer goods; 1980 s Human-computer interface and software ergonomics; 1990 s Cognitive and organizational ergonomics.
Towards the end of XX century ergonomics was divided into three main directions: Ergonomics of physical environment. This field of science examined issues concerning anatomical, anthropometric al, physiological and biomechanical human characteristics covering physical (manual) labor. Most important problems include posture during the work, material processing, musculoskeletal disorders, organization of workplace, safety (reliability) and health. Cognitive ergonomics concerns mental processes such as comprehension, memory and decision making because they have a great impact on interaction between human and other elements of system. Corresponding problems include mental (brain) work (Robertson, 26), problem solving (decision making), skilled and experienced performance, and interaction human computer. Cognitive ergonomics places the emphasis on coaching, training and continuous education of human during design of socio-technical system.
Organizational ergonomics examines issues related to optimization of socio-technical systems, including its organizational structures and management processes. Problems include examination of communication system between the individuals, management of group resources, project development, cooperation, team work, and management. Ergonomics is based on achievements of different sciences: psychology, physiology, medicine, architecture, sociology, industrial design (technical aesthetics), to mention a few. Ergonomics (Human Factors) uses results of researches conducted in the field of biomechanics (science that examines motor activity), anthropometry (a branch of science that examines measurements of human body. It also has practical application in investigative and legal procedures). Professionals in ergonomics adjust construction and design of goods, products and working places to constitution and sizes of an individual, his physical strength and limitations, biological needs, ability to perceive information and take decisions, as well as capacity to withstand overloads and such psychological factors like isolation and stress.
Construction and design of goods and products taking into consideration human needs involves use of advanced manufacturing sciences and technological innovations (Meister, 48). Such novelties are often used during the design of computers and robots as well as various special instruments and tools. However, some techniques used in ergonomics, are quite simple (for example, monitoring list or evaluation data list that contains information concerning human factors, including safety or potential health risk. Ergonomics is often used for construction of mannequins that represent proportions of body of representatives of different groups of people.
Such mannequins are used to measure height of a person in sitting posture, length of arm, leg, etc. Constructors and designers use these measurements when they design product or working place for the majority of potential users. The models of work-bench setup, airplane cabs, crew cabs, drivers cabs, spaceship cabs together with monitoring of people who work with such equipment in such conditions play an important role in ergonomic researches. In addition, scientists and designers use computer design, electronic databases and other facilities. Professionals in ergonomic analysis examine people and objects they use as parts of an integral system. Such system can involve various combinations, i.
e. human- instrument, human computer, (i. e. navigator who uses navigational facilities, worker who check quality of products at assembly line, computer user, etc).
Coming back to the history of ergonomics, we can come to conclusion that ergonomics traces its roots back to ancient times, when people started to undertake their first efforts to improve implements or life conditions. Industry was one of the first areas where ergonomics found one of its earliest applications. Heretofore people had to adjust their needs and adapt themselves to their working places and to mechanisms they used in the process of work. Sometimes it threatened their safety or made their work less effective.
Application of ergonomic approach to industry allowed planning working process and working place in order to make accomplishment of working tasks safer and more comfortable for the majority of workers. Visual information and warning signals lamps, rings, sirens, monitoring equipment all these facilities are the most important and distinctive features of manufacturing firms designed and planned with consideration of human factors. When professionals in ergonomics design control board of technical equipment, they take into account size and shape of buttons, levers, handles, treadles and pedals, steering-wheels, etc. They calculate potential level of applied force necessary to switch on the equipment. A worker should experience no difficulties to find, to make distinctions between, or to use corresponding devices, especially what concerns automobiles, airplanes and different devices used at manufacturing firms. Monitoring system is very important in such automated industries and branches of industry like atomic power engineering, petroleum refineries, etc.
Besides, it is important not only for workers, but also for safety of inhabitants of neighboring areas. For example, because of defects in design and construction of control pane and signaling operators of American nuclear power plant in Harrisburg (Pennsylvania) were unable to undertake adequate necessary measures. Failure to launch signaling resulted in accident (March 28, 1979). Ergonomics plays an important role in design of office equipment, office layout and planning of buildings. Furniture should be comfortable to use. For example, furniture in the offices equipped by computers should allow users working with minimum strain of back, neck and eyes.
Proper light and soundproofing are also important. Specialists in ergonomics underline that computer and technical instructions should be easy to understand in order to decrease the level of stress, frustration and alarm condition. According to numerous researches, well-thought design of equipment and office facilities give more satisfaction to worker and, thereby, assure higher productivity of labor and increase the efficiency of production. People want to use products and equipment with such important characteristics like safety, simplicity in use and reliability. Professionals in ergonomics often cooperate with designers, technicians responsible for quality control and marketing in order to create attractive and reliable production. Such creative solutions include tooth-brushes with bent members, cameras that are easy to hold and difficult to damage, safety equipment used in automobiles, etc.
In the course of history ergonomics changed a lot. New century poses new problems concerning practical application of human factors in our everyday life. First of all, it concerns characteristics of human as a component of automated system. Ergonomists dwell on processes of information, memory perception, decision-taking, researches, and other processes, motivation problem, preparedness of activity, stress, collective activity of workers, etc. Such factors like tiredness, monotonous actions, perceptive and mental workload, physical environment, biomechanical and physiological factors have great impact on effectiveness of human activity.
Secondly, it concerns the design of new instruments, decides and equipment aimed to facilitate interaction between human and mechanism. These devices include visual and auditory analyzers, controls, input computer systems, new instruments and appliances. Thirdly, these are tasks of system character such as organization of working processes, coaching, preparation, training and selection. We come to conclusion that approach to ergonomics underwent drastic changes over the course of time.
However, ergonomics remains one of the most important sciences, which has great impact on our life. Practical application of ergonomic researches results in significant social and economic effect. Both domestic and foreign experience gives evidence of significant increase of labor productivity and effectiveness. Bibliography Meister, D.
The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999. Robertson, Michelle M. "Office Ergonomics. " Professional Safety (April 2001): 25 - 31. Vink, P. "Bricklaying: A step-by-step approach to better work. Ergonomics. " Ergonomics 33. 3 (n. d. ): 349 - 352.
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