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... ack Lithuania, but once he arrived in Pinsk, he began to delay his march. He stayed on too long at the wedding of Duke Yaropolk of Pinsk. By that time, spring had arrived, the snow had melted, and it was no longer possible to reach Lithuania. 1191 was the year of a planned attack on Lithuania by the Dukes of Polotsk and Novogrudok, however they did not fulfill their plan. It appeared that the citizenry of Novogrudok wanted vengeance on the Lithuanians, because during their war with Sweden, the Lithuanians had attacked their allies from Korea. Such facts show that Lithuania had political interests in far-off lands as well. 1193 was the year of a planned second attack on Lithuania by Rurik.
However, he retreated at the demand of Sviatoslav, the Duke of Kiev. 1196 was the first-known time of the incursions of the Jatvingians into the Volynia Duchy. The Lithuanians may have inspired such aggression, or, possibly, they participated in it, similarly to what occurred later in 1209. 1198 was a time, when the attacks by Lithuanians on Novogrudok had become an accustomed occurrence. Much can be inferred by the words of a chronicler, who wrote that Iziaslav, son of Duke Yaroslav of Novogrudok had been seated at Velikiye Luki (also known as Grand Luck) to be the Duke and defend Novogrudok from Lithuania, and there he died (in 1198). By fall of the same year, the Polotskans and Lithuanians attacked Velikiye Luki together. When Yaroslav marched against Polotsk that winter, the Polotskans greeted (him) by bowing, and entered into a peace treaty. It would appear that they had only attacked the lands of Novogrudok at the insistence of the Lithuanians.
XII century was a time of the greatest breakthroughs in Lithuanian history. From being no more than a duchy, subject to Russia, it evolved to become a strong country, which was destined to play an important role in the history of Central and Eastern Europe. XIII century 1201 dated a peace treaty, drawn by the Lithuanian delegates with the Germans, after their arrival at the newly established town of Riga. This was the first known international agreement for Lithuania. All of the agreements signed by Lithuania in the XIII century were similar, being short term and usually, for the purpose of defence from one side, while acting in the offence in some other direction. During the XIII-XIV centuries, Lithuania could be referred to as a military monarchy.
Preparations for marches of the army into war each year had become the norm. 1202 was marked by the establishment of the knightly Brotherhood Order of Christ's Militia (also known as the Livonian Order or the Order of Sword Bearers) by the Bishop of Riga. The Germanic settlements, which he supported in Padauguvys, rapidly grew in strength. 1213 was the year, when a ruler of Lithuania was killed in Livonia near Lielvarde. Early in 1214, the new ruler Steksys began to attack Livonia, but he was also killed. From that time, incursions into Livonia were organised less frequently. 1219 was the date of the peace treaty between Lithuania and Volynia. There were 5 elder and 16 common dukes, representing the Lithuanian side. The first named of the elder dukes in the document was Zivinbutas.
Following his name were Daujotas and his brother Viligaila, and Dausprungas and his brother Mindaugas. The document leads to surmise that Zivinbutas came into power in Lithuania after the death of Steksys. Most likely, he had been the brother of the two previous Lithuanian rulers. The other 4 elder dukes were probably the sons of those same 2 rulers. The Livonian Chronicle, which had been composed in verse, retains the information that Mindaugas (also documented in foreign sources as Mendowe or Mindovg) was the descendant of "a great King, and none equal to him could be found during his time. " This information leads to believe that the father of Mindaugas and Dausprungas had probably been the Lithuanian ruler, who had been killed near Lietlvarde in 1213, whereas Steksys, who had ruled but a short time, had been the father of Daujotas and Viligaila. 1228 - 1237 was a period, when no more than two raids of the Lithuanian army are known, one in 1230 and the other in 1234. The fact leads to conclude that a lengthy internal struggle for power was occurring in Lithuania, after the death of Zivinbutas.
The struggle may have ended as a result of an external threat. In September 1236 the Order of Sword Bearers, acting jointly with the pilgrims, laid waste to a portion of Lithuania, then turned back before reaching Siauliai. However, the Lithuanian army, then led by Vykintas, blocked their path on swamp grounds near a stream, and defeated them on September 22 nd. Master Volkewin and 48 cavalrymen of the Order were killed. On May 27, 1237 the Order of Sword Bearers entered into an alliance with the Germanic (also known as the Teutonic) Order, which had been established in Prussia in 1230. Lithuania found itself between the Livonian and Prussian divisions of the Teutonic Order. 1238 was the first year in which Mindaugas is documented as the ruler of Lithuania. 1239 - 1248 was a period of frequent attacks on Russia by Lithuania, which was taking advantage of Russia's weakened condition after the Tartar invasions.
It was probably at this time that Lithuania took control of Black Russia with the Novogrudok Castle. One Lithuanian duke even managed to seize Smolensk in 1239. However, soon thereafter, he was beaten and taken prisoner by Yaroslav, the Grand Duke of Vladimir. 1248 was the year, when Mindaugas dispatched the sons of his brother, Tautvilas and Gedivydas, and the brother of their mother, Vykintas, to act against Smolensk. They were able to successfully cross the Smolensk Duchy and invade the lands of Moscow. They defeated the army of Duke Michael of Moscow, who died in battle near Prove.
Soon thereafter, the Dukes of Sunday beat the Lithuanians near Zubtsov. Mindaugas passed a decision to expel the defeated dukes from Lithuania, and sent his soldiers against them. 1249 was the time that Tautvilas, Gedivydas and Vykintas fled to the father-in-law of Gedivydas and Vykintas, Daniel the Duke of Volynia. Daniel agreed to back the refugees. He proceeded to attack Black Russia, and seized numerous castles in the area. In the meantime, Vykintas managed to bribe the Jatvingians and half of the Samogitians, and come to an agreement with the Order. 1250 was marked by the attacks of the Livonian army on the lands under the rule of Mindaugas. Tautvilas joined them, along with the army, which had been provided by Daniel.
After these attacks, Tautvilas had himself christened in Riga. Mindaugas, however, bribed Andrew Shirland (sometimes, known as Andrew of Shirland), the Livonian Land Master, and events took a different turn than expected. In spring 1251 Andrew Shirland christened Mindaugas, and drove Tautvilas out of Riga. Tautvilas proceeded to launch an attack on Mindaugas. But by barricading himself in Voruta Castle, Mindaugas was able to repel the attack with the assistance of the Teutonic cavalrymen. Next, Mindaugas took the offensive and surrounded Tautvilas at the fortress of Vykintas in Tvirimantas.
Once again, Tautvilas had to flee to Volynia, whereupon he continued in his war against Lithuania. On July 17, 1251 Pope Innocent IV declared Lithuania to be the ownership of St. Peter, and delegated the Bishop of July to crown Mindaugas, as the King of Lithuania. On July 6, 1253 the coronation of Mindaugas and his wife, Morta (Martha) was held, probably at Latina. At the same time, Mindaugas incurred an obligation to the Livonian Order, and at the time of his coronation, he had no choice but to sign over a part of Samogitians and Jatvingians. In time this donation was further enlarged.
In August 1253 Albert, the Archbishop of Riga, blessed Christian, a member of the Livonian Order, as the Bishop of Lithuania. Because the Livonian Order was in disagreement with the Archbishop of Riga, it provided assistance to Mindaugas for achieving his purpose. Mindaugas had sought to have the Bishopric of Lithuania be directly responsible to the Pope. Christian proved to be completely under the influence of the Livonian Order. Due to the resistance of the Samogitians, neither Bishop Christian nor the Order were able to gain power in Lithuania.
However, the close relationship with the Order assisted Mindaugas in modernising the structure of the country. Using the example of Church tithing, he introduced a new tribute payment in grain. The tax was used for the most part to support the garrisons of his fortresses. 1254 was the date of the peace treaty between Lithuania and Volynia. Mindaugas...
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