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Example research essay topic: John Stuart Mill Men Are Created Equal - 1,621 words

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The highest aspiration of the common man is to lead a life where he can enjoy freedom of speech, freedom of belief and have no fear of suppression. Disregard and contempt for "Human Rights" have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind. "Human Rights" is a much used and abused term today, and is used extensively for political gain. The term is is used to defend Human freedom as well as destroy it. People tend to attach importance to particular human rights issue according to ideology and political convenience.

if a man is not to have recourse or rebellion against tyranny and oppression, taking law into their own hands, "Human Rights" should be built into the society as a natural rule. As a last resort only, law should be applied as a protection. Todd Gitlin in his easy on Human rights states- "Human rights: the literal words deserve a moment's scrutiny. Human: member of the species, the single race homo sapiens. Whatever persons are called, or call themselves, wherever they live, they are human. Therefore human rights: benefits to which people are entitled simply by virtue of being human.

Just after the world war II, it was realized that citizens of many countries lived under the control of tyrants, having no recourse other than war to relieve inhuman treatment given to them. Unless some way was found to to provide justice to these people, they could revolt and become the catalyst for another wide-scale war including the Nuclear war. This concern, led to the majority of governments in the world to come to the conclusion that basic human rights must be protected. This is not only for the sake of the individuals and countries involved, but to preserve the human race. The United Nations Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and UN Human Rights covenants were written and implemented in the aftermath of: The Holocaust Revelations coming from the Nuremberg war crimes trials The Bataan Death March The atomic bomb and other horrors smaller in magnitude but not in impact on the individuals they affected. A whole lot of people in a number of countries had a crisis of conscience and found they could no longer be a silent spectator, While tyrants jailed, tortured, and killed their dear ones and neighbours. "Liberty does not consist in mere declarations of the rights of man.

It consists in the translation of those declarations into definite action" -Woodrow Wilson Address, July 4, 1914 THE HISTORY The concept of human rights has been existing under several names through many centuries and in many countries. After the King John of England violated a number of ancient laws pertaining to basic rights of Human and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the treaty known as "Magna Carta", or Great Charter in the year 1215. The laws and customer of "Magna Carta" were later termed as "Human Rights." Among them were the right of the church to be free from governmental interference (THE BELIEF), the rights of all citizens (FREEDOM) to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. It established the right of widows who owned property to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due process and equality before the law.

It also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct. The political and religious traditions in many parts of the world also proclaimed "Human Rights", calling on rulers to rule justly and compassionately, and delineating limits on their power over the lives, property, and activities of their citizens. The Magna Carta These are summed up in Magna Carta as follows: It is a contract between the King and his subjects it is between his descendents and their descendents "forever" Most of its articles applied to specific abuses of the time it guarantees the freedom of the English Church from royal interference protected the property and inheritance rights of underage heirs and widows, limited taxes established standing and roving courts to deal with criminal and civil issues punishment should fit the crime forbade officials to steal from citizens, noble or freeborn commoners It also put on paper, for the first time, English concepts of due process and forbade bribery of judges and other legal authorities. THE EARLY BEGINNING In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe several philosophers proposed the concept of "natural rights, " rights belonging to a person by nature and because he is a human being, not by virtue of his citizenship in a particular country or membership in a particular religious or ethnic group. This concept was vigorously debated and rejected by some philosophers as baseless. Others saw it as a formulation of the underlying principle on which all ideas of citizens' rights and political and religious liberty were based.

The theme then became - "We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. " In this context, in 1789 the people of France overthrew their monarchy and established the first French Republic. Out of the revolution came the "Declaration of the Rights of Man. " The term natural rights eventually fell into disfavour, but the concept of universal rights took root. Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, and Henry David Thoreau expanded the concept. Thoreau is the first philosopher to use the term, "Human Rights", and does so in his treatise, Civil Disobedience. Thoreau's work has been extremely influential on individuals as different as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King. Gandhi and King, in particular, developed their ideas on non-violent resistance to unethical government actions from this work.

Other early proponents of human rights were English philosopher John Stuart Mill, in his Essay on Liberty, and American political theorist Thomas Paine in his essay, The Rights of Man. THE CURRENT SCENARIO The middle and late 19 th century saw a number of issues take centre stage. Many of these in the late 20 th century were considered as "Human Rights" issues. These issues included slavery, serfdom, brutal working conditions, starvation wages and child labor.

In the Americas, this was known as "Indian Problem" at the time. In the United States, a bloody war over slavery came close to destroying a country founded only eighty years earlier on the premise that, "all men are created equal. " Russia freed its serfs the year the war began. For many decades neither the emancipated American slaves nor the freed Russian serfs saw any real degree of freedom or basic rights. In the last part of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, "Human Rights " activism remained largely tied to political and religious groups and beliefs. Revolutionaries pointed at the atrocities of governments as proof that their ideology was necessary to bring about change and end the government's abuses.

Many people, disgusted with the actions of governments in power and got involved with revolutionary groups. The governments then pointed out bombings, strike-related violence, and growth in violent crime and social disorder as reasons for the stern approach toward dissent. Neither group had any credibility with the other and most had little or no credibility with uninvolved citizens, because their concerns were generally political, not humanitarian. Politically partisan protests often just encouraged more oppression, and uninvolved citizens who got caught in the crossfire usually cursed both sides and made no effort to listen to the reasons given by either.

Nonetheless many specific civil rights and human rights movements managed to affect profound social changes during this time. Labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions, forbidding or regulating child labour, establishing a forty hour work week in the United States and many European countries, etc. The women's rights movement succeeded in getting voting rights for women in many countries. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers.

One of the most influential and sucessful was Mahatma Ghandi's movement to free India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the U. S. Civil Rights movement is notable.

In 1961 a group of lawyers, journalists, writers, and others, offended and frustrated by the sentencing of two Portugese college students to twenty years in prison for having raised their glasses in a toast to "freedom" in a bar, formed Appeal for Amnesty, 1961. The appeal was announced on May 28 in the London Observer's Sunday Supplement. The appeal told the stories of six "prisoners of conscience" from different countries and of different political and religious backgrounds, all jailed for peacefully expressing their political or religious beliefs, and called on governments everywhere to free such prisoners. It set forth a simple plan of action, calling for strictly impartial, non-partisan appeals to be made on behalf of these prisoners and any who, like them, had been imprisoned for peacefully expressed beliefs.

The response to this appeal was larger than anyone had expected. The one-year appeal grew, was extended beyond the year, and Amnesty International and the modern human rights movement were both born. The modern "Human Rights" movement didn't invent any new principles. It was different from what preceeded it primarily in its explicit rejection of political ideology and partisanship, and its demand that governments everywhere, regardless of ideology, adhere to certain basic principles of human rights in their treatment of their citizens.

This appealed to a large group of people, many of whom were politically inactive, not interested in joining a political movement, not ideologically motivated, and did not care abou...


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