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Public Policy Affirmative action is a term used to describe federal initiatives that require people responsible for providing economic and educational opportunities to consider a candidate's race, sex, or disability, especially if the individual's minority affiliation has suffered past discrimination (Ezorsky, p. 18). The affirmative action legislatures were intended to stop discrimination in the fields of job market and education opportunities. They were further elaborated upon when employers and educators were given the option to correct past discrimination by giving preference to minorities (Altschiller, p. 77). Affirmative action was established as a public policy with the altruistic intent of providing equal opportunity in a racially unequal society whereby impartial judgment of ability is dissipating In the long run, affirmative action is expected to instill in society an ability to reconsider the validity and consistency of the qualifications deeming the integrity of educational and vocational opportunity. Although affirmative action seemingly violates equal rights beliefs, it continues to be necessary for minorities to receive equal opportunity in the work force, education, and society. The need for affirmative action did not occur overnight.
The history of the United States clearly exemplifies the necessity for this act through its history of discrimination, oppression, and hostility toward minority groups such as women and African Americans. Historically, one often recognizes the decision in Brown v. Topeka Board of Education that removed the legal limitations on labor opportunities for blacks. This case was an addition to segregation, and therefore an addition to the new black "arena of competition" was necessary (Thomson, p. 82).
This addition was not formulated until the 1960 's, when affirmative action legislation took place. Opponents of affirmative action are quick to point out the negative effects and results of the legislation, though they often overlook the factors that have made it a necessity, racism, oppression, and discrimination. In fact, many affirmative action advocates believe that past repression of minorities has lent a hand in the rapid advancement of the white population. This belief theorizes that because blacks were repressed, job availability, housing, living standards, and wages were elevated for the white population because fair competition was lacking. Former president Lyndon B. Johnson used his executive order in 1965 to establish affirmative action, which at the time covered government contracts and legalized minority consideration if institutions chose to enact it (Ezorsky, p. 44).
In 1972, the Equal Employment Act further applied affirmative action to education (Ezorsky, p. 59). The positively progressing effects of affirmative action are evident from the 1960 's until 1980, before President Reagan's term, whereas the overall minority economic position improved. When Reagan became president in 1980, affirmative action and numerous other civil rights legislations began to suffer the consequences of Reagan's policies. Because of Reagan's opposition to issues such as affirmative action, civil rights legislation, and anti-discriminatory measures, he made many appointments that increased the number of partisan federal employees. The results of these actions are evident in the increasing wage gap between African American and white college graduates since 1979 (Altschiller, p. 119). The two primary advantages of affirmative action include increasing minority employment opportunity, especially in high paying jobs, and helping to tear away racially imbedded stereotypes that exist in the mind of society as a whole.
The centuries of repression of minorities has undoubtedly hindered the people in many ways. The attempt to establish a society of "neutral principles" would be "unethical and immoral" (Glendon, p. 233). The competition between races has never had a fair starting point; therefore, affirmative action is necessary to achieve this equality of opportunity. Various reasons exist supporting the necessity for affirmative action. The most popular, though, is that affirmative action provides equal opportunity for minorities in an unequal society. When viewed from the perspective of discrimination victims, it provides opportunity for minorities and upholds the objective of fair competition in jobs, education, and business opportunities.
The companies that are supportive of affirmative action policies claim they have experienced success in hiring, promotion, and performance. Other supporters of affirmative action claim that without it, qualified minorities do not receive the chance to earn more and advance themselves. Anti-affirmative advocates argue that equal opportunity presently exists, and because of this presence, it is evident that a minority's low levels of achievement are a result of genes, culture, and lack of focus. (Mills, p. 80) People who share this view often rehash the case Want v. Jackson Board of Education. In this incident, an African American teacher sued the Michigan Public School system for not abiding affirmative action standards. The court ruled that affirmative action policies are unable to take precedence over seniority in employment, exemplified through tenure (Altschiller, p. 201).
The problem of racial tension often views affirmative action as an element that has encouraged it and discouraged it. Many see affirmative action programs as weak, though it has been proven that they have lessened racial bias in the workplace and education. Affirmative action advocates strongly feel that racial tension is actually caused by the bitterness of whites that deny minorities a sense of belonging in the workplace and education. In reality, what affirmative action opposition ignores is the fact that racial tension existed centuries before the equal opportunity legislation was introduced.
Despite many people's beliefs, dominant racial groups are not significantly suffering because of affirmative action. Actually, affirmative action can possibly reduce racial tension by forcing people of different origins and backgrounds to cooperate and work together on a professional and intellectual field. A 1990 Roper Survey concluded, "The US population is not as prejudiced as it was in 1978 " (Curry, p. 104). By considering neighborhood living conditions, housing opportunity, education, and jobs, the survey concluded that there is increased tolerance of minorities by whites, and both groups generally appear to be more content. Also debatable are the possible psychological effects of affirmative action on its benefactor and victims. Anti-affirmative action advocates argue that the failure of preferentially hired workers will reinforce negative stereotypes.
Other negative results incurred upon recipients of affirmative action's benefits include effects such as an implied inferiority complex. This is a species of demoralization; it is a debilitating doubt that is detrimental to an individual's performance. Another negative result is reverse discrimination, which many believe discriminates against whites by hiring less qualified minorities. Also notable is subtle discrimination. This is often evident through the 'glass ceiling' effect in the business world, whereas preference backfires and holds back minorities.
This barrier held to minorities is often referred to the point at which the deciding factor is converted from color to competence. Other's view that affirmative action gives minorities the opportunities to defy such negative stereotypes that have labeled them seemingly since the beginning of time. The reinforcement of stereotypes can be avoided by hiring minority candidates that are promising toward success. Opponents of affirmative action policies fail to recognize the preferential treatment given to athletes and legacy students through college admissions and the possible inferiority complexes addressed in that area. Without affirmative action, it has been proven that minorities are discouraged from attempting to achieve their goals. Anti-affirmative action advocates found that the 8. 4 % drop in applications to US medical schools is a normal fluctuation, though the decline in the amount of minority applicants is appalling. "Applications by Mexican Americans, for example, fell 13. 8 %, by mainland Puerto Ricans 16. 2 %, and by African Americans 10. 4 %" (Ezorsky, p. 123).
The first class admitted to University of California-Berkeley without affirmative action policies being used has observed a " 50 % decline in underrepresented minorities" (Ezorsky, p. 123). The decline in minority applicants to educational institutions is extremely detrimental to society in that the cultural distribution of professionals to the population is unbalanced; African Americans make up 11 % of the US population comprise only 2. 9 % of the doctors in America (Ezorsky, p. 124). The Association of American Medical Colleges estimates that nearly half of today's physicians would not be in practice if it had not been for affirmative action's policies. President William Clinton felt that the disproportionate number of African Americans in prison was a result of equal opportunity in education being unavailable to minorities; they therefore sought alternative lifestyles.
Affirmative action is necessary to uphold the diversified cultural experience of educational institutions. One reason affirmative action was originally established was to increase minority population in colleges and graduate schools. According to Gwen Fitzpatrick, a Spanish professor at University of California-Berkeley, in response to the abolition of affirmative action policies, "Affirmative action had been effective in having greater representation of groups that had been excluded. The University of California has to be more representative of the population" (Curry, p. 122). Rafael Perez-Torres, an English professor at University of California-Los Angeles argues, "This is seriously affecting the quality of education that we as professors can offer.
It diminishes the variety of experiences that students can bring to the classroom. We want to make clear to the people of California that diversity is an issue that is important to the mission of the University of California" (Glendon, p. 246). The necessity of affirmative action is imperative because minority educational opportunities are scant in...
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Research essay sample on Affirmative Action Policies University Of California
