Example research essay topic: Socio Economic Status Socially Constructed - 1,849 words

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Advances in AI With advances in technology many researchers have become captivated with the pursuit of Artificial Intelligence. Numerous fields of study have tried to contribute their knowledge in order to create intelligence. However, years of research have thus far been unable to create human intelligence. The endeavour seems doomed to fail, for a century of thought which has tried to simply define intelligence has yet to succeed. This lack of a concrete tangible definition does not preclude its existence but merely points to its complex nature. Human intelligence could be viewed as being as diverse as its population however this type of analysis leads us to the individual and becomes useless.

There is no doubt that there are universal patterns of what could be considered intelligence and it is these patterns which may give us insight. Because these patterns of intelligence could be linked to humanity's evolution, much time is devoted to find what forces or factors are responsible for them. There are few who would still adhere to a model of Nature vs. Nurture rather substituting the vs. for via. Both environmental and genetic factors contribute to human intelligence, however which of these, if any, is more important in shaping intelligence is a source of fierce disagreement.

It seems apparent that those who posses higher levels of intelligence are accorded a certain amount of privilege. Therefore where intelligence comes from is essential in determining the validity of endowing privilege on those who posses it. Is it the case that the very definition of intelligence is socially constructed in order to maintain the existing social inequalities? Is it the case that social inequalities are merely a reflection of the variance in intelligence? Do social inequalities reduce the oppressed ability to develop intelligence? Is intelligence merely a small factor contributing to the uneven distribution of resources within our world?

Is intelligence a product of hard work or just luck? Evolution of Intelligence Before we can begin to examine the modern day conceptions of intelligence, it is necessary to look at how human intelligence has evolved. For the purpose of simplicity I am making the assumption that the general theory of evolution is accurate. That is that human did not spontaneously appear on Earth and are a product of millions of years of evolution. Therefore it is conceivable that the very way in which we think was once quite different from todays mode of logic and reason.

Amaury de Rein court looks at a turning point in the evolution of human intelligence in her article Sex and Power in History. In this article she examines the rise of patriarchy out of matriarchy. She iterates how this shift was a result of mans gradual development of his role in procreation. This marked a mental threshold from magico-symbolic thought processes to rational thinking. The creation of life was now understood in terms of causality rather than mysticism. From this point forth, all the female-oriented myths were reinterpreted patriarchal.

The cyclical nature of female-oriented thought was replaced by the linear thought patterns of male-oriented thinking. This further led to the notion of progress and later reflective thought. The mythology that prevailed under matriarchal rule was replaced by the masculine thought process of rationalism and logic. The overall effect is that tension replaced repetitive rhythm. This led the way to the concept of time as being unidirectional instead of the lunar-vegetal cycle which previously set-up the notion of time.

History could now be viewed with a beginning, middle, and an end. This had great significance in releasing man from the endless repetitive cycles of time, which could now be seen as a linear development with unique moral significance for each step of the way. It is apparent from this article that logic and reason are not value neutral, they are concepts which are steeped in a particular ideology. What it also inadvertently points to the idea of interpreting intelligence from completely opposite perspectives. Thinking in terms of cycles instead of our linear modes of thoughts produces completely different types or patterns of intelligence. It serves as a caution in trying to determine and define the very slippery notion of intelligence.

Intelligence defined The inherent difficulty in studying intelligence is reflected one of psychology's maxims; the human minds greatest challenge is to understand itself. This has nonetheless not deterred psychologists in attempting to measure this ambiguous concept. The first to propose and design an intelligence test was Alfred Binet. He was summoned by the French government to design a test that would be able to alert educators of children who might benefit from remedial instruction. The test was so successful in determining school performance that it was accepted throughout the western world. In 1916 Lewis Terman from Stanford University adapted it for use with American children.

It thus became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and is the test most commonly referred to when speaking of an IQ test. This test and others like it take a holistic approach to intelligence. They point to the idea of intelligence as a unified trait. This idea was expanded in 1927 by Spearman who noticed that all the items on the Stanford-Binet test were correlated and thus proposed a general factor, which he termed g, of intelligence. He viewed the different items as measuring specific factors he termed s. The concept that intelligence can be viewed as a singular trait is one that has lost its appeal over the years.

In an article published by the Progressive Labor Party Racism, Intelligence and the Working Class, the authors bring some of the common criticisms that have be directed at such tests. The political agenda they wish to push clouds some its points but the overall criticism of IQ tests is that they are designed to measure a particular type of ability defined by the ruling class. In essence this argument points to the fact that these tests are culturally biased. Hence, the scores are not only indicative of only one potential pattern of intelligence but furthermore they do not reflect an objective universal pattern of intelligence but rather one that is socially constructed. The first of these criticism was addressed in the mid 1960 s by J. P.

Guilford. He devised a 180 -factor model of intelligence, which classified each intellectual task according to three dimensions: content, mental operation, and product. This theory is the predecessor to Gardners theory of multiple intelligence, which was developed, in the last 15 years. This theory identifies seven independent intelligences on the basis of distinct sets of processing operations applied in culturally meaningful activities (linguistic, login-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily / kinesthetic , interpersonal, intra personal).

This theory addressing both of the major flaws, which were present in some of the earlier, tests. Nonetheless, Gardners theory is just that a theory, it is not rooted in strong empirical data. However, I believe that this is, to date, the best theory of intelligence that has been developed. Nature or Nurture? Gardner proposes that there are seven distinct types of human intelligence patterns, which manifest themselves to varying degrees in each of us. This might begin to account for the infinite variations in human abilities.

There could possibly be more than just seven but even five types, for example, of intelligences could be mixed in varying degrees to produce the diversity of human existences throughout the ages. However this does not speak to the origins of intelligence. Is the type and degree of intelligence that we possess a product of our genes or does our environment determine it? A more sensible question might be to ask which, nature or nurture, is in the drivers seat? Researchers have been trying to design experiments to investigate this very question for at least a century.

The most common type of study has been one, which investigate the intelligence in identical twins reared apart. This should allow the researcher to differentiate between the effects of nature and nurture on intelligence. The results have given us estimates as high as 70 % for the attribution of genetic influence on intelligence variance (Ken Richardson, Understanding Intelligence). Although these results seem to be conclusive evidence for the view that intelligence is primarily genetic it is not without its critics. It is fairly rare for identical twins to be reared apart, therefore producing small sample size and thus results that can not easily be generalized. The environments that separated twins are brought up in are likely to be similar, making it difficult to accurately attribute variations in intelligence to their genetic makeup.

The most common criticism of all such studies is the very measurement of intelligence. Without an accepted definition, intelligence can not be accurately measured and thus trying to understand its development is somewhat futile. There are so many factors that contribute to human intelligence and development that trying to find causal links is an exercise in fantasy rather than a scientific endeavour. For us to understand exactly how intelligence develops would be to unravel one of the most illusive mysteries facing humankind. I dont however, believe that this puzzle is likely to be solved in the near future. Social Deconstruction Whichever determinant one believes to have the greater influence on intelligence, it is undeniable that the other still plays a part.

Therefore, the environment in which we are raised has a direct effect on the type and the degree of intelligence we may develop, the only ambiguity is how large or small this effect might be. Even if only 30 % of the variation in intelligence is attributable to environmental factors, this effect should still be detectable. Victoria J. Molfese, Lisabeth F. DiLalla, and Debra Bunce from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale conducted a study, which attempted to measure the effects of socio-economic status, home environment, and biomedical risk factors on intelligence test scores of 3 to 8 year olds. Home environment quality was evaluated according to maternal intelligence, characteristics of the home, and parenting practices.

Although the researchers found that home environment was the best predictor of scores on intelligence test scores, the definition of a superior home environment seems fraught with biases. The conclusion that the researchers draw is a valid one based on their data but may not easily be generalized. A good home environment is undoubtedly essential to the intellectual development of young children but what constitute such an environment is certainly open to debate. Differences in values may lead to incorrect assessment of home environment and thus skew the results. The second measure that they employed, as a predictor of intelligence test scores, was that of Socio-Economic Status. This is, in my opinion, is a more objective factor.

The results from the study showed that SES had a greater effect on predicting intelligence test scores of 5 to 8 year olds. Many studies have also shown that early adolescent test scores are positively correlated with SES. These results would seem to suggest that as children become older and gain an awareness of their SES their intellectual development suffers. This could be the result of stigmatization, once the individual reali...

Research essay sample on Socio Economic Status Socially Constructed