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The Age of Reformation The Age of Reformation religious revolution in Western Europe in the 16 th cent. Beginning as a reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church, the Reformation ultimately led to freedom of dissent. The preparation for the movement was long and there had been earlier calls for reform, e. g. , by John WYCLIF and John HUSS. Desire for change within the church was increased by the RENAISSANCE, with its study of ancient texts and emphasis on the individual. Other factors that aided the movement were the invention of printing, the rise of commerce and a middle class, and political conflicts between German princes and the Holy Roman emperor.
The Reformation began suddenly when Martin LUTHER posted 95 theses on the church door at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. Open attack on the doctrines and authority of the church followed and led to Luthers breach with the church (1520), which the Diet of Worms (1521) failed to heal. His doctrine was of justification by faith alone instead of by sacraments, good works, and meditation, and it placed a person in direct communication with God. Luthers insistence on reading the Bible placed on the individual a greater responsibility for his own salvation. The new church spread in Germany and Scandinavia, especially among princes and people who hoped for a greater degree of freedom. The conflict between the Lutherans and the Catholic Emperor CHARLES V was long and bitter.
A temporary settlement was reached at the Peace of Augsburg (1555), but continued discord contributed later to the THIRTY YEARS WAR. Outside Germany, a different type of dissent developed under Huldreich ZWINGLI in Zurich, and within Protestantism differences arose, such as doctrinal arguments on the Lords Supper. These were debated, inconclusively, at the Colloquy of Marburg (1529) by Luther and Philip MELANCHTHON on one side and Zwingli and Johannes Oecolampadius on the other. More radical ideas were spread, particularly among the lower classes, by such leaders as CARLSTADT, Thomas MUNZER, and JOHN OF LEIDEN.
In 1536 Geneva became the center for the teachings of John CALVIN, perhaps the greatest theologian of Protestantism. In France the HUGUENOTS, fired by Calvin's doctrine, resisted the Catholic majority in the Wars of RELIGION (1562 - 98). Calvinism superseded Lutheranism in the Netherlands, and it spread to Scotland through the efforts of John KNOX. In England the Reformation took its own course.
HENRY VIII issued the Act of Supremacy (1534), which rejected papal control and created a national church (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). Calvinistic thought was, however, strong in England, and it influenced later reforms. On the Continent, divisions within the Protestant churches served to forward the Counter Reformation, which region some territory for Catholicism. The end (1648) of the Thirty Years War brought some stabilization, but the force of the Reformation did not end. The movement, and its fruit, Protestantism, has continued to exert influence to the present day, with its emphasis on personal responsibility and individual freedom, its refusal to take authority for granted, and its influence in breaking the hold of the church upon life and the consequent secularization of life and attitudes. Peasants Revolt an uprising in 1381 among the peasant and artisan classes in England, particularly in Kent and Essex.
The rebels marched on London, occupying the city and executing unpopular ministers, but after the death of their leader, Wat Tyler, they were persuaded to disperse by Richard II. Charles V became Emperor of Spain at the age of nineteen by succeeding over his grandfather Diet of Worms a meeting of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles Vs imperial diet at Worms in 1521, at which Martin Luther was summoned to appear. Luther committed himself there to the cause of Protestant reform, and his teaching was formally condemned in the Edict of Worms. Anabaptists name applied, originally in scorn, to certain Christian sects holding that infant baptism is not authorized in Scripture, but that baptism should be administered only to believers.
Prominent in Europe during the 16 th cent. , they were persecuted everywhere. Their chief leaders were Thomas MUNZER and JOHN OF LEIDEN. MENNONITES and Hutterites are descended from them. Indulgences (in the Roman Catholic Church) a grant by the Pope of remission of the temporal punishment in purgatory still due for sins after absolution. The unrestricted sale of indulgences by pardoners was a widespread abuse during the later Middle Ages. Jesuit a member of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests founded by St Ignatius Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and others in 1534, to do missionary work.
The order was zealous in opposing the Reformation. Despite periodic persecution it has retained an important influence in Catholic thought and education. Act of Supremacy either of two Acts of Parliament of 1534 and 1559 (particularly the former), which established Henry VIII and Elizabeth I as supreme heads of the Church of England and excluded the authority of the Pope. Philip Melanchthon (1497 1560) German Protestant reformer; born Philip Schwarzerd. He succeeded Luther as leader of the Reformation movement in Germany in 1521 and drew up the Augsburg Confession (1530). Council of Trent an ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held in three sessions between 1545 and 1563 in Trento.
Prompted by the opposition of the Reformation, the council clarified and redefined the Church's doctrine, abolished many ecclesiastical abuses, and strengthened the authority of the papacy. These measures provided the Church with a solid foundation for the Counter-Reformation. Justifications of Faith Alone Martin Luthers doctrine Imation of Christ (Thomas A. Kempis) b. 1379 or 1380, d. 1471, German monk. In the Netherlands, he became (c. 1413) an Augustinian priest. The great devotional work The Imitation of Christ has been traditionally ascribed to him, although some scholars doubt his authorship; Most popular religious book of the period The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism- Max Weber- His famous Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904 - 5) related Calvinist ideals to the rise of capitalism.
He emphasized the role of religious values, ideologies, and charismatic leaders in shaping societies. Michael Servers 1511 - 53, Spanish theologian and physician. He early came in contact with reformers in Germany and Switzerland, but his views, particularly about the TRINITY, were condemned by both Roman Catholics and Protestants. He fled to France, where he gained fame in medicine. After he had a work on theology secretly printed (1553), the INQUISITION moved against him.
He escaped from prison, but he was seized in Geneva, on John Calvin s order, and tried and burned there. Peace of Augsburg September 1555 - made the division of Christendom permanent. This agreement recognized a law that had already been well established and in practice: cuius regio, eius religio, meaning that the ruler of the land would determine the religion of the land. Mary I (r. 1553 - 1558) became Queen of England- proceeded to restore Catholic doctrine and practice with a single mindedness that rivaled that of her father. Bernini's Ecstasy of St.
Theresa Bernini (1598 - 1680) Italian sculptor and architect, the dominant figure of the Italian BAROQUE. His Roman works include the Churches of Santa Maria della Vittoria which houses his great sculpture the Ecstasy of St. Theresa. The Black Legend (Bartolome de Las Casas) portrayed all Spanish treatment to Indians as unprincipled and inhumane.
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