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Example research essay topic: Wadsworth Publishing Glass Ceiling - 1,233 words

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... e working in organizations, at lower levels than men. There have been many explanations for this metaphor. The pipeline theory, focuses on the history of men in organizations, and explains that it takes twenty to twenty five years for the average man to climb the corporate ladder. Women, having only been integrated into upper management within the past decade or so, have not had enough time.

Therefore, " as men and women enter occupations in equal numbers, then equal numbers of the sexes will attain executive levels in organizations. " Stereotypes can inhibit the progression of women in organizations, by assuming that women are less likely to peruse a career with a company, as opposed to starting a family. Schwartz states that " women have a greater tendency to plateau or to interrupt their careers in ways that limit their growth and development the money corporations invest in recruitment, training and development is less likely to produce top executives among women than among men. " Women due to the fact that they are child bearing are classified as mothers, and not given the opportunities that men are, because there is less of a possibility for men to leave an organization to start a family. In addition to the pipeline theory, the homogeneity principle, part time employment, and private enterprise attempt to further explain the motives for the glass ceiling. As discussed, the pipeline theory provides a rational explanation, which is non-biased and optimistic for the future. The theory of homogeneity, plays on group dynamics principles. This principle justifies why organizations are mostly male, due to the fact that it is human nature to feel more comfortable with and to perceive more favorably people who are similar to us.

Women who choose to raise a family and still work, are likely to do one of the following: obtain a part time position, stay at home, or start their own business. These three instances, are not counted with the number of women in organizations, and can be considered reasons for the " glass ceiling" Deborah Tannen, has written numerous books on the topic of how language greatly affects the events that transpire in large organizations. Tannen, being a woman herself, brings to light certain issues that have not yet been discussed in this argument. Some of which are: gender differences in conversational coherence and sex class linked framing of talking at work, with reference to women and authority, indirectness at work and talking at meetings. In the book Gender and Discourse, Tannen explains that for the purposes of her argument, the ways of speaking are " links with the class of women and the class of men, rather than necessarily with the individual members of that class. " By establishing this it is easier to understand the difference in linguistic strategies of classes, men and women.

As with most generalizations, there are exceptions to the rules, these will be discussed later on. Tannen uses framing as a method of analyzing the origins in sex-class differences. According to Tannen, both classes exert the same amount of balance between status (hierarchy/ equality) and connection (distance/ closeness) in interactions. Yet, if a woman's conversation was overheard by a man, or vise versa, some meanings would be misinterpreted, due to the lack of knowledge about the others linguistic style. When interacting within ones class, it is easier to understand the underlying tone of the conversation. Conversely, Tannen states that when men and women interact cross-culturally, there are misunderstandings because women focus more on equality and closeness while men focus on equality and distance.

Conversational coherence, in this case, refers to conversations studied by Tannen that occurred between men and women, boys and girls of various ages. What she discovers is that there are two main elements that create conversational, physical alignment and topical cohesion. Physical alignment includes actual physical positioning of heads and bodies in relation to one another, including eye contact. Topical cohesion is how speakers develop their ideas, and interact with others ideas. What was concluded from this analysis, was that men, although not physically aligned, displayed " more intense intimacy" and were more engaged, while the women were physically aligned, yet less engaged. The final outcome was that the females were faster at physically attuning themselves to each other, and decided upon topics more rapidly than the males, also discussing these topics at great length.

The males choose a larger number of topics, with a less detailed conversation about each. "Thus the analysis contradicts the frequently heard claim that women's language is more indirect than men's. " In her other book Talking form 9 to 5 Tannen focuses more specific on how men and women communicate and interact in organizations. One chapter in the above mentioned book is devoted entirely to women and authority. She points out that men, having only a mother figure to refer to, have trouble dealing with women and authority. When people refer to women in authority, they either expect them to be ": soft " or "weak", and when they are not, and they exert "aggressive" or "abrasive" behavior, they are considered manly. What these stereotypes do, is " ambush professional women as they seek to maintain their careers as well as their personal lives- and their femininity" Downplaying authority is a prominent characteristic of female managers.

Tannen goes on to say that this is due to the fact that females' desire balance in conversations and respect the feelings of her subordinates. Unfortunately, more often than not, this gives the impression of weakness as opposed to considerate behavior. The common bond is respect. Men perceive respect when they are recognized for their positions, and enforce individuality of their subordinates, where as women are more concerned with a family environment, stressing equality, and obtaining respect for not only what position they hold, but how effectively they can manage a team. At the end of this chapter, Tannen says: a woman is in a double bind. Everything she does to enhance her assertiveness risks undercutting her femininity, in the eyes of others.

And everything she does to fit expectations of how a women should talk risks undercutting the impression of competence that she makes. Carr-Ruffino, N. (1993). The Promotable Woman. Belmont, Calif. : Wadsworth Publishing Haslett, B. J. , Geis, F. L, & Carter, M.

R. (1992). The Organizational Woman: Power and Paradox, Norwood, N. J. : Basic Books Kanter, R. M. (1997) Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books Bibliography: Carr-Ruffino, N. (1993). The Promotable Woman.

Belmont, Calif. : Wadsworth Publishing Company Haslett, B. J. , Geis, F. L, & Carter, M. R. (1992). The Organizational Woman: Power and Paradox, Norwood, N. J. : Basic Books Kanter, R.

M. (1997) Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books Karen, M. F. (1994). Management and Gender. Westport, Conn. : Quorum Books. Pearson, J.

C. , West, R. L. , & Turner, L. H. (1995). Gender and Communication. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown and Benchmark Rosner, J. B. (1990, Nov. -Dec. ).

Ways Women Lead. Harvard Business review, 119 - 125. Schwartz, F. N. (1989, Jan - Feb. ). Management women and the new facts of life, Harvard Business Review, 65 - 76. Tannen, D. (1994) Gender and Discourse.

New York: Oxford University Press. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking form 9 to 5. New York: William Morrow and Company.

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