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Example research essay topic: Male Dominated Society Age Of 18 - 1,895 words

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The concept of culture can be defined as an orchestrated integration of unconsciously learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of a group of people. Many varying constituents can compose any given culture. This causes many different cultures to deviate from one another greatly. Such components as ethnicity, life experiences, values, beliefs, religion and customs are all examples of these aspects. (Warner and Model, p. 4, 1998) Customs are a way of expressing values and beliefs of a culture.

One form of a cultural custom is bodily alterations. These exist in many cultures throughout the world. They vary in expressivity from minor markings to complete addition or removal of body parts. Many examples of body alteration exist.

Cosmetic surgery plays a significant role in customs of body alteration in the U. S. One such example is that of breast augmentation. This is when the breasts are surgically enlarged by placement of a synthetic implant behind both / either the breast tissue and chest muscles, through means of a small incision. A plastic surgeon and / or reconstructive surgeon perform this procedure. (web) Augmentations or enlargement of the breast, medically termed augmentation mammoplasty (web), became a commercial success in the mid- 1960 s with the invention of inflatable silicone implants.

Their population has continued. It is estimated that well over 1 million women in the U. S. have had their breast surgically enlarged. Each year approximately 130, 000 women have their beasts enhanced. Most women that undergo this surgery are between the ages of 20 and 30 years old. (Davis, p. 25, 1995) However, as the popularity of this surgical procedure increases the age range of those obtaining breast augmentations is broadening.

Two percent of breast augmentations performed are on women under the age of 18 years. The number of women well into middle age having the procedure done is also increasing. (Davis, p. 26, 1995) Breast augmentations, like many cosmetic surgery procedures, are often expensive. Depending on anesthesia cost, surgical facilities and doctor fees, among others, current cost of breast augmentations can range from $ 3000. 00 to $ 8000. 00. (web) In addition to monetary expense, there are also serious health risks. There is a 40 percent chance of some side effect ranging from lack of sensation in breasts, scarring, or painful encapsulation (hardening of the breast around the implant due to scar tissue or calcium deposits). There is a 20 percent chance that theyd become infected or rejected by the body and have to be removed and redone. (Davis, p. 3, 1995) More specifically, from 1985 to 1996 the FDA has received 125, 012 reports of adverse reactions as a result of saline implants, which are deemed to be safer concerning health than silicone implants. (USFDA, p. 25, 1996) In spite of these adversary effects of breast augmentation and the statistics that support them, the procedure remains today one of the most popular forms of cosmetic surgery, second only to liposuction. (Davis, p. 9, 1995) People are willing to brave these risks because there are deeper cultural values and attitudes underlying. One possible assumption of societies underlying cultural values concerns that of the beauty system.

In this, there are suggestive, if not stereotypical, roles that both genders adhere to. Expressions of characteristics that fill these rolls are accomplished in many ways, a major one being physical appearance. Generally, women traditionally are characterized by femininity. (Davis, p. 49 - 51, 1995) Breasts are invariably confederated with femininity in the United States culture. Particularly, femininity and voluptuous breasts correlate, making breast augmentation a way to enhance femininity. (Davis, p. 9, 1995) The opportunity to buy most anything one could need, such as a characteristic to fill a cultural gender role, is also symbolic of western culture. This notion has been defined as consumer culture. In this we buy to fulfill our needs: basic and not- so- basic. (Refuse, web) Cosmetic surgery of all types, including breast augmentation, is the cultural product of both technology and of a consumer culture which demonstrates how one can buy practically anything, including how they look. (Davis, p. 18, 1995) In using the body as a vehicle for self-expression, many feel that this is evident of oppression in a male dominated society.

Ideas taken from Sandra Lee Barry (1988) and Kathryn Pauly Morgan (1986) are expressive of this notion of the expression of femininity as oppression. It is crucial to understand the central role that the socially sanctioned and socially constructed [notion of] femininity plays in a male supremacist, hetero-sexist society. And it is essential not to underestimate the gender constituting and identity confirming role that femininity plays in bringing women-as-subject into existence while simultaneously creating her as a patriarchal defined object. (Morgan, p. 254, in reader. ) In summary, breast augmentations are a way for women to publicly display their conformity to a gender role created by men, the male identified woman to the hypothetical male viewer to the cultural norms[of this society]. (Davis, p. 165, 1995) Another form of a cultural bodily alteration is that of female genital mutilation. This practice concerns the surgical alteration of the female genitalia.

There are varying types of F. G. M. identified by the extent of the cutting. The most common type is excision of the clitoris and the labia minora which accounts for around 70 percent of all procedure.

About 15 percent are infibulated. This is when the clitoris, labia memory, and labia majora are cut off and what is left are sewn together. (Lecture 10 / 16 / 00) Most of the girls that have had this done live in 28 African countries. It is estimated that over 130 million female in Africa have undergone some form of F. G. M. (W. H.

O. , p. 5, 1997) In a cross- cultural comparison we can see that there are both similarities and differences concerning the bodily alteration practices of breast augmentation and F. G. M. A major similarity exist in the fact that both groups of women are willing to risk their lives and their good health in order to undergo these procedures for the sake of cultural norms. Along with the previously mentioned health risks associated with breast augmentations F. G.

M. has many health risks. Immediate effects of F. G. M. include severe pain, shock, and possible disease transmission due to an unsterile environment. (WHO, p. 7, 1997) A Kenyan gynecologist has estimated that out of 1000 females who undergo F.

G. M. , 70 die as a result. Long term complications include severe scar tissue formation, dysmenorrhoea, dyspareunia, and childbirth complications. (Dorkenoo, p. 15, 1995) A difference between the two practices is the chronological history of F. G.

M. is much longer that of cosmetic breast augmentation. There are reports of a form of F. G. M. being done to female slaves in ancient Rome. (Dorkenoo, p. 29, 1995) Breast augmentation through means of implants did not come about until mid 1960 s.

Because of the age of the practice of F. G. M. there is much more tradition and deeper sociological reasons associated with it. F. G.

M. supposedly promotes social integration and maintenance of social cohesion as well as initiation of girls into womanhood. (WHO, p. 4, 1997) Thus, the age of the participants undergoing F. G. M. are much younger, almost always under the age of 18 (Lecture, 10 / 16 / 00) as opposed to breast augmentation with a majority of those undergoing the surgery between the ages of 20 and 30. F.

G. M. , unlike breast augmentation is also supposedly rich in tradition for those practicing it. It is for much cultural preservation as Marie Assaad states: We cant afford being different. We found our mothers circumcised; we learned that our grandmothers and great-grandmothers were circumcised and we have to carry the tradition to our children and grandchildren. (Dorkenoo, p. 83, 1995) Until recent political interference, the event of F.

G. M. was rich in symbolism with designated huts for the recuperating girls attended only by the instruct ress, where the girls undergoing F. G. M.

are secluded from the rest of society until they come forth, healed, as marriageable women. In the matter of very young girls, they are showered with gifts of special clothes and food. (Dorkenoo, p. 39, 1995) Antithetically, in the case of breast augmentation, the recipient of the procedure often keeps the fact that theyve had surgery from most of society due to feelings of shame and compunction, among others. A similarity in both aforementioned examples of body alterations, the body used as a sort of cultural plastic. This is when culture is expressed by the deconstruction and rearranging of ones body to follow cultural customs. (Board, p. 202, 1990) One common cultural theme shared in the expression of these customs is that of womens oppression in a male dominated society. Most often, women believe that these surgeries are a way of exercising power over their lives by surpassing disliked body parts but in reality they are the victims of exploitation. (Davis, p. 165, 1995) Along with the previously mentioned examples of oppression concerning breast augmentation; another example: Somalian woman: When I was circumcised there could no longer be any question about my honor If one girl doesnt get circumcised the honor of the family suffers, for they can say: the family is no good. (Lecture 10 / 11 / 00) This woman thinks that she is taking the matter of preserving her family's honor into her own hands for which she feels powerful. In actuality, this woman is being deceived by her society.

A womans genitalia should have no prevalence to her families honor. Another example: Sierra Lesbian woman: male domination has nothing to do with [it]. Circumcision is part of the process of initiation into our secret societies. We women continue to do it to ourselves.

Men fear our medicine (Lecture 10 / 18 / 00) Why does this woman think she needs a secret society? Because it denotes power over men by having a secret of which they do not know. This is a form of oppression. Women are placated into believing that by authoritative their bodies they control their lives, not having men control their lives. This is also a constituent of oppression. One shouldnt have to surgically alter an otherwise healthy organ for aesthetic or cultural purposes in order to be in control of their lives.

In procedure itself the two practices themselves are very different. However, breast augmentation and F. G. M.

are very similar relative to the societies and cultures in which they are present. Authors Lack off and Scheme (1984) sum up the cross- cultural comparison very well: The pain tends to be of a long, even lifelong duration: rather than the quick prick of a needle, we have the squeezing out the tight laced corset, the stab of the pointy toe, the asphyxiation of the collar and tie, or the scrape of the razor blade day in and day out. The pain is perhaps less agonizing at any one moment in our beauty rituals than theirs, but over time it evens out. (Davis, p. 41, 1995) In summation regardless of the exact ritual, people are willing to brave pain and actual health risks in order to adhere to cultural norms of how the body should look through body


Free research essays on topics related to: male dominated society, age of 18, scar tissue, breast augmentation, cosmetic surgery

Research essay sample on Male Dominated Society Age Of 18

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