Customer center

We are a boutique essay service, not a mass production custom writing factory. Let us create a perfect paper for you today!

Example research essay topic: Female Genital Mutilation Violence Against Women - 2,820 words

NOTE: Free essay sample provided on this page should be used for references or sample purposes only. The sample essay is available to anyone, so any direct quoting without mentioning the source will be considered plagiarism by schools, colleges and universities that use plagiarism detection software. To get a completely brand-new, plagiarism-free essay, please use our essay writing service.
One click instant price quote

Female genital mutilation affects more than 80 million women and girls worldwide and it is estimated that over two million girls are genitally mutilated every year. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is often associated with poverty, low status of women and illiteracy. Women who are not circumcised may be stigmatized, ostracized and not sought out in marriage. Originally the process occurred when the girls reached puberty, but through time it has been performed on younger and younger girls (Raising Daughters Aware, 1999). FGM is sometimes described as female circumcision, a term that is medically misleading. FGM includes varying degrees of surgery to the external genitalia.

The variety of procedures has been recently described in full by (Lightfoot-Kline, 1989). In its most minor form, sunna, an Arabic word meaning tradition, the prepuce of the clitoris is excised, leaving little or no damage. Excision refers to the complete or partial removal of the clitoris with or without removal of the labia minora. Clitoridectomy-excision is defined as the removal of parts or all of the clitoris, as well as parts of the labia majora. The most severe form of FGM is pharaonic circumcision or infibulation. Infibulation consists of the excision of the clitoris, labia minora and most of the labia majora.

The raw edges of the labia minora are then closed together by binding the girl s legs together or by suturing the tissue. An opening is left so that urine, menstrual blood and other vaginal secretions can be expelled. In many instances, this opening may be only a pinhole in size (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). Religion or tradition is the most common reasons for performing FGM.

However, FGM is not a requirement of Islam, is not mentioned in the Koran and it is performed in some Christian cultures (Thiam, 1983). Countries where FGM is frequently practiced include Somalia, Sudan, Mali, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia and much of the Middle East. The prevalence of FGM in Somalian women has been confirmed by Dirie &# 038; Lindmark (1991) who studied 290 in Mogadishu. The majority of the women were of medium or high socioeconomic backgrounds. Over fifty percent had elementary education or higher. Eighty percent of the women had been infibulated; 6. 5 % had a clitoridectomy performed; and sunna had been performed in 5. 5 % of the cases.

Therefore, infibulation seems to be the most common form of FGM in Somalia. All of the women who participated in the study were considering circumcising their daughters. Religious reasons were given by 69. 5 % of women, while twenty percent believed that FGM was necessary in order to remain a virgin for marriage. Fifty percent of the women believed that when their daughters are mutilated infibulation should be the practice performed. Dirie &# 038; Lindmark (1991) found that fifty-two percent of the women had been operated on by medically untrained persons and that the majority of the procedures were done at home. Many of the surgeons would be elderly with poor eyesight, using basic tools such as knives, razor blades or shards of broken glass.

Twigs or rocks may be inserted into the vagina maintain an opening. Due to these crude procedures, immediate medical complications may include hemorrhage or infection. Other complications may include urethral damage, severe bladder infection, tetanus and shock. There is 6 % annual death rate among the female population in countries where FGM is practiced (Thiam, 1983).

FGM leads to many long-term gynecological problems. In most cases the problems are caused because of the inability of menstrual blood to escape from the vagina. A buildup of menstrual blood may cause hematoma, which is an accumulation of blood in the uterus. This results in dysmenorreah (painful periods). Urinary problems and infertility are also quite common.

In a study of hospital admissions in Mogadishu, Dirie &# 038; Lindmark (1991) demonstrated these long term effects. One hundred eighteen women were admitted to one gynecological ward in 1978, in 56 % of the women, dermoid cyst formation was the causing problem. These cysts developed at the site of the excised clitoris. They are generally painless but they can grow large and cause discomfort. A further 36 % of the women in the study had problems related to abscess formation at the site of the excised clitoris. Long-term urinary problems occurred after FGM as well.

Painful urination and poor urination flow are the most common, totaling 20. 6 % of the women. The excessive time taken to empty the bladder may cause particular problems for school girls who may be accused of trying to get out of their school work by spending too much time in the restroom (Arbesman, 1993). In an article entitled Maternal Mortality in Africa: 1980 - 87 Bill (1993) suggests that maternal mortality is highest in countries where FGM is widely practiced. The article states that stopping the procedure may help to reduce the rate of maternal mortality. Because of extensive scar tissue that forms after infibulation, women who give birth with the help of midwives in Somalia often receive an anterior episiotomy in addition to the more common, posterior episiotomy. At this point it is not uncommon for re-infibulation to be performed.

In Sudan, following delivery, re-infibulation almost always occurs. Problems will arise when an infibulated women does not have qualified personnel at the delivery. Severe lacerations, including third degree tears may occur. Injuries to the urinary tract including separation of the urethra from the bladder (Gordon, 1994). Infibulation will also interfere with the provision of modern obstetric care. In the prenatal period, vaginal examinations are almost never possible.

If infibulation is not reversed prior to the onset of labor, obstetricians may not be able to use modern technology to monitor fetal and maternal well being. That may make labor unnecessarily hazardous and result in a caesarean section, which could have been avoided (World Health Org. , 1992). Problems related to sexuality may become apparent even before infibulated girls become sexually active. This may be especially so for young girls raised in the Western culture and who are exposed to Western ideas regarding sexuality. Those ideas may be in conflict with their own.

These young girls may worry about their ability to have a healthy sexual relationship and may express fears about loss of femininity (Arbesman, 1993). Often times, the women who visit Western doctors express concern about their future relationships. That future usually depends on the severity of the mutilation. For those who have only experienced the practice of sunna, a healthy lifestyle is possible. It is, however, very difficult for women who have been infibulated to enjoy sex at all (Ziv, 1997).

Even such small tasks as changing in a public changing room may be a cause for embarrassment for these women. The inability to insert tampons may interfere with recreational activities and induce a sense of inadequacy (Arbesman, 1993). Following marriage, sexual intercourse may not even be possible if the vaginal opening is too narrow. Men may use a cutting instrument or may gradually try to dilate the vagina by penetration. In some instances a midwife may attend the women and perform a painful de-infibulation operation (Dirie &# 038; Lindmark, 1992).

Dirie &# 038; Lindmark (1992) found that eighty-seven percent of women were de-infibulated by their husbands without the use if instruments. Twenty-three were de-infibulated with the use of instruments such as knives and scissors. The husband or a female relative of the husband did this procedure. Not surprisingly, intercourse may not occur as a result of vaginismus. Vaginismus is thought to be a problem psychological in nature and is defined as painful cramping of the vaginal muscles prior to penetration (Gordon, 1994), . When the clitoris has been excised, orgasm may be problematic.

There is a controversy between Western doctors over whether a woman who has experienced FGM can obtain orgasm at all (Ziv, 1997). It should not be presumed that husbands are happy that their wives are infibulated. Dirie &# 038; Lindmark (1989) found that most men do not want their wives re-sutured after childbirth and described one man s experiences with his infibulated wife. While he experienced pleasure, the pain suffered by his wife caused him guilt. It was only after the birth of their first child that they were both able to enjoy sexual intercourse. Female genital mutilation has been practiced prior to recorded history and continues in to the present across many continents and cultures.

FGM does not occur solely in under developed countries such as Somalia, it can be found in industrial societies as well. The Feminist News reported in July of 1996 of an 11 year old girl who died as a result of FGM in Egypt. A local barber removed the girl s clitoris during a village circumcision ceremony in which several girls had their genitals mutilated. The Egyptian government has refused to ban the practice but has sought to end the human rights violation. Almost 90 % of girls in rural Egypt are circumcised in order to keep them chaste (Feminist News, 1996) There have been many reasons for mutilation. For instance: by conquerors as retribution, by the medical community as a cure for masturbation or as a promotion of cleanliness, by opera lovers to create great sopranos and by Puritan Christians as a means to enter heaven (Ziv, 1997).

There are many justifications as to why FGM should occur today, most of which are based largely on tradition, with no historical or material backing. Many people who approve of the practice believe that the clitoris is dirty and must be destroyed. It would grow like a penis and hang between the women s legs if not destroyed. A woman will remain childless if she is not excised. The clitoris is an evil, which makes men impotent and kills children at birth (Walker &# 038; Parma, 1993). The operation will prevent foul smelling secretions and keep the organs clean.

It will also help a woman to conceive as well as prevent the uterus from falling out. It assures virginity and chastity, on which family honor is based. These psychosocial beliefs, which often run deep and may appear to many people outside that particular belief system to be irrational, but the African women truly follow these ideas (Raising Daughters Aware, 1999). The practice is performed as a rite of passage in many areas, such as Northern Sudan, Somalia, Kenya and Mali. A ceremony surrounds the event there, with special songs and dances intended to teach the girl her duties as a good wife and mother. In some areas the girl will be given gifts, such as clothes and food.

However, it seems that today in many of these societies the ceremonial aspects are disappearing due to education and abolition campaigns (Raising Daughters Aware, 1999). A comparison between male and female circumcision is made by Raising Daughters name Aware. They claim that male circumcision is an unnecessary procedure performed for conformist, hygienic and cosmetic reasons. With female circumcision these reasons are often cited to mollify criticism. Over the years, these reasons have become accepted superficially. They go on to say that the main reason girls are mutilated is to ensure their virginity by severely damaging or completely inhibiting their ability to enjoy sexual relations.

This is to prepare them to become proper wives. It is done because men insist, no matter how promiscuous themselves, on virginal, chaste brides. No such correlation exists with male circumcision. No boy is circumcised to keep him virginal until marriage, or with the deliberate intent to decrease his sexual appetite. In addition, as males, boys exist as part of the status quo, while girls still struggle for basic rights. For male circumcision to be equivalent to the most similar form of FGM, the head of the penis, not just the foreskin, would have to be cut off (Raising Daughters Aware, 1999).

While the prohibition of torturous acts has been in the spotlight since the Second World War, FGM only recently has become a human rights issue. There are many factors that prevented FGM from being recognized on the international human rights agenda some of which include cultural issues and violence against women. Perhaps the most disturbing of the factors concludes that since the surgeon performing the mutilation was not a state official, FGM is not a legitimate human rights concern. (Amnesty, 1997). Since the 1970 s a campaign for the abolition of sexual mutilation has been in progress. As a result of increasing awareness, the Commission pour l Abolition des Mutilations Sexueles (CAMS) was founded in 1979, with the goal of eradicating all forms of FGM. The main objective of this commission was to establish links and international solidarity between the women s liberation in Europe and Third world countries.

CAMS-International, on the other hand, has focused on collecting information regarding sexual mutilation practices while simultaneously encouraging international meetings. The World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women was held in 1980. It was the first international confrontation between the supporters and the opponents of FGM. On one side were European women who, on the strength of their feminist convictions, condemned specific mutilations and expressed their solidarity with women who had been mutilated and with all women campaigning for abolition. On the other side were women from the so-called Third World whose response was negative, reflecting a lack of awareness of the specific oppression from which women suffer (Thiam, 1983).

In Copenhagen there were African women who opposed the practice of infibulation and excision however, they would not consider the abolition of sexual mutilation. This shows that the women of Africa are not concerned with the abolition and it demonstrates that their attitude is a stumbling block toward the abolition of FGM. The general attitude of African women is that this is none of the West s business. Copenhagen demonstrated the division and communication difficulties between African women and Western feminists (Thiam, 1983).

The London association- Women s Action Group-Female Excision and Infibulation (WAGFEI) states that European women tend to want to run the show for the African women. As honorable as their intentions may be, it will not be tolerated. (Thiam, 1983) Today, the human rights implications of FGM are undoubtedly recognized at an international level. The 1993 UN World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna was a milestone in the FGM campaign. The Vienna Declaration called for the elimination of all forms of violence against women to be seen as human right obligation (Amnesty, 1996). States have the obligation under international standards to take legal action against FGM, as part of the measures they must take to prevent violence against women and to protect children from abuse. Legislation making FGM a criminal offence is important in that it represents an unambiguous statement that the practice will not be officially allowed.

However, careful thought needs to be given to the kind of legislation passed; the context into which it is introduced; how it is enforced; and how it is integrated into other aspects of a complete eradication strategy. (Amnesty, 1996). Laws clearly prohibiting FGM exist in several countries outside Africa, including Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and USA. In many Western countries child protection laws exist which can also be applied to protect girls from being genitally mutilated. This has been the case in the UK and Australia.

In France at least 19 people have been convicted under French assault laws for performing FGM or causing FGM to be carried out. (Amnesty, 1996) The analysis made by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) the three agencies most actively involved in the fight against FGM has shown that a well designed and well coordinated campaign against the practice, with appropriate technical expertise and adequate levels of funding, brings about a major decline in female genital mutilation in 10 years. It could lead to FGM s elimination within three generations (World Health Org. , 1997). Joint statement by the World Health Organization, UN Children s Fund (UNICEF) and UN Population Fund, February 1996 It is unacceptable that the international community remain passive in the name of a distorted vision of multiculturalism. Human behaviors and cultural values, however senseless or destructive they may appear from the personal and cultural standpoint of others, have meaning and fulfill a function for those who practice them. However, culture is not static but it is in constant flux, adapting and reforming. People will change their behavior when they understand the hazards and indignity of harmful practices and when they realize that it is possible to give up harmful practices without giving up meaningful aspects of their culture. (Amnesty, 1996) Thinking longitudinally, it is evident that the campaign against these practices cannot succeed unless the social structures in the countries where FGM is practiced are changed.

All action regarding sexual mutilation must be carried out with the women who are mainly concerned (Thiam, 1983).


Free research essays on topics related to: labia minora, world health organization, violence against women, female genital mutilation, labia majora

Research essay sample on Female Genital Mutilation Violence Against Women

Writing service prices per page

  • $18.85 - in 14 days
  • $19.95 - in 3 days
  • $23.95 - within 48 hours
  • $26.95 - within 24 hours
  • $29.95 - within 12 hours
  • $34.95 - within 6 hours
  • $39.95 - within 3 hours
  • Calculate total price

Our guarantee

  • 100% money back guarantee
  • plagiarism-free authentic works
  • completely confidential service
  • timely revisions until completely satisfied
  • 24/7 customer support
  • payments protected by PayPal

Secure payment

With EssayChief you get

  • Strict plagiarism detection regulations
  • 300+ words per page
  • Times New Roman font 12 pts, double-spaced
  • FREE abstract, outline, bibliography
  • Money back guarantee for missed deadline
  • Round-the-clock customer support
  • Complete anonymity of all our clients
  • Custom essays
  • Writing service

EssayChief can handle your

  • essays, term papers
  • book and movie reports
  • Power Point presentations
  • annotated bibliographies
  • theses, dissertations
  • exam preparations
  • editing and proofreading of your texts
  • academic ghostwriting of any kind

Free essay samples

Browse essays by topic:

Stay with EssayChief! We offer 10% discount to all our return customers. Once you place your order you will receive an email with the password. You can use this password for unlimited period and you can share it with your friends!

Academic ghostwriting

About us

© 2002-2024 EssayChief.com