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... in a biological specimen unless sensitive methodologies are used in the forensic toxicology laboratory. BR Achieving the lowest level of detection needed for these cases often requires the use of targeted analyses in which testing focuses on only one drug at a time. Needless to say, the analysis of a specimen for all of the drugs in Table 1 would prove to be a very time-consuming challenge.
BR The pharmacological properties of these drugs can present another problem for the toxicologist. Many of the drugs listed in Table 1 are quickly absorbed after oral administration, resulting in a rapid onset of effects. Depending on the drug or drugs used, these effects can include strong sedation with loss of consciousness, lowered inhibitions, amnesia, or combinations of these effects. BR Many of these drugs are rapidly bio transformed into numerous inactive metabolites that may be conjugated. Some have very short half-lives, whereas others remain in the body for a fairly long period of time. One, GHB, is an endogenous product that is naturally occurring at low levels in the human body.
BR Often the reporting of the crime of drug-facilitated sexual assault becomes one of the biggest difficulties for the forensic toxicologist. Given the amnesiac effect of some of the drugs listed in Table 1, it is understandable why the victims do not report the crime for days after the alleged drugging occurred. There have been reported cases in which the victims were not aware that they had been sexually assaulted until videotapes were uncovered that showed the assault while they were sedated. BR Another difficulty is that many of these drugs cause effects that are characteristic of ethanol intoxication. Unfortunately, this leads many law enforcement officers to assume that the victim was drunk and realizing the difficulties of such a case, they may delay a thorough investigation. Of course, any delay in the collection of biological evidence in a sexual assault is harmful to the toxicological investigation, so every effort should be made to collect appropriate specimens as quickly as possible.
BR As with any case of sexual assault, there is always the issue of the victim's credibility. It is not surprising that the media's recent interest in reporting these cases has led to an increase in the number of claims of drug-facilitated sexual assault. The thorough toxicological investigation required of these cases becomes very frustrating when it is later revealed that the victim was not truthful. Obtaining a full history of the case prior to performing any analyses is essential to screen out some of these cases. BR Most jurisdictions have protocols for the collection of evidence from sexual assault cases. These protocols should be followed in any rape case regardless of the suspicion of drugging.
However, the most important evidence in cases of drug-facilitated rape is often not collected -- a urine sample. Unfortunately, most rape kits do not provide a container for urine; thus this specimen is not obtained. BR Given the fact that there is usually a substantial delay between the drugging and the reporting of the crime, the urine allows for a longer window of detection of drugs commonly used in these crimes. The sooner a urine specimen is obtained after the alleged event, the greater the chance of detecting drugs that are quickly eliminated from the body. A urine specimen is probably of little value if it is obtained after four days of the suspected drugging of the victim. For an extensive analysis to be performed, it is recommended that a minimum of 30 mL of urine be collected; however, 100 mL is preferred.
BR Because drugs are generally detectable in blood specimens a much shorter period than in urine, blood specimens are usually useful only when the collection has occurred within 24 hours of the drugging. The blood (approximately 30 mL) should be collected in a container with preservatives (such as gray-top tubes containing sodium fluoride and potassium oxalate) and refrigerated. This blood specimen should be collected in addition to blood specimens needed for other forensic testing (i. e. , serology or DNA). Although not crucial, a blood level of a drug, along with pharmacokinetic information, can assist in corroborating or disproving a victim's version of events.
BR Occasionally, the victim of a drug-facilitated sexual assault vomits. Vomiting is very common after consumption of some of the drugs listed in Table 1. The analysis of the vomit may also prove useful to the investigation. BR Although usually not the case, the forensic toxicology laboratory can actually be an impediment to the successful investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assaults. Because of differences in budgets, personnel, and caseloads; forensic toxicology laboratories differ in their capabilities to perform sensitive screening tests for the drugs in Table 1. Today's push for rapid determination of common drugs of abuse in biological specimens has driven the field to rely heavily on immunoassay's.
Of particular concern is the fact that many of the benzodiazepines listed in Table 1 (and their metabolites) do not cross-react well with the antibodies in these assays; particularly at the levels seen in cases of drug-facilitated rape (Huang and Moody 1995; Edinboro and Poklis 1994; Morland and Smith-Kielland 1997). This can lead to many false negative results. Proper procedures should be in place to perform sensitive analyses for the drugs listed in Table 1, and detection limits for these procedures should be documented. BR The successful toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault cases is dependent upon many factors outside the control of the forensic toxicologist. Therefore, it is imperative that toxicologists when given the opportunity, educate the other members of the team (i. e. , law enforcement officers, medical professionals, and victims) as to what is needed to strengthen the investigation.
A number of recommendations have been presented elsewhere (LeBeau et al. 1998; LeBeau et al. 1999), but an overview of these may be helpful: BR 1. As soon as the crime is reported, a urine specimen (up to 100 mL) should be obtained as quickly as possible from the victim. Depending on the drug or drugs used in the crime, the urine specimen may indicate drug exposure at a maximum of four days prior to collection. Additionally, if the drugging occurred within the past 24 hours, blood specimens should also be collected and preserved. BR 2. Obtain as much information as possible prior to beginning an analysis.
Important facts to gather include: BR a. What symptoms did the victim describe? BR b. How long was the victim unconscious? BR c.
How much time passed between the alleged drugging and the collection of the specimen or specimens? BR d. How much ethanol did the victim consume? BR e. Did the victim take any drugs (recreational, prescription, or over the counter)? BR f.
How many times (approximately) did the victim urinate prior to the collection of a urine specimen? BR g. What drugs do the suspect or suspects have available to use? BR h. Any other appropriate questions based on the case history. BR After obtaining the history, it may steer the toxicological investigators in a particular direction.
This may help alleviate some of the time-consuming analyses required in a drug-facilitated sexual assault. BR 3. Develop sensitive assays for the drugs found in Table 1, and know your limitations. Depending on the time of specimen collection in relation to the drugging, many of the drugs in Table 1 may require detection limits below the 10 ng / m L level. If your procedure cannot adequately determine if an individual had consumed a particular drug in the time frame dictated by a particular case, inform the investigators of this. BR Reports of drug-facilitated rape are increasing at an alarming rate.
Victims, accused perpetrators, medical professionals, and law enforcement officers are relying on the forensic toxicologist to conduct the best possible testing of the specimens that are available. BR This article has addressed some of the more common problems encountered in cases of drug-facilitated sexual assault. It has also provided suggestions to overcome some of these obstacles. BR Andollo, W. and Hearn, W. L.
The characterization of drugs used in sexual battery - the Dade County experience. In: Proceedings of the 49 th Anniversary Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Colorado Springs, Colorado: 1997. BR Baselt, R.
S. Analysis and interpretation of short-acting amnestic drugs: GHB, date-rape and knock-out drugs. In: Proceedings of the 50 th Anniversary Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Colorado Springs, Colorado: 1998. BR Bismuth, C. , Dally, S. , and Boston, S. Chemical submission: GHB, benzodiazepines, and other knock-out drops, Journal of Toxicology and Clinical Toxicology (1997) 35: 595 - 598.
BR Edinboro, L. E. , Poklis, A. Detection of benzodiazepines and tribenzazolams by TRIAGE: Confirmation by solid-phase extraction utilizing SPEC 3 MLMP 3 micro columns and GC-MS, Journal of Analytical Toxicology (1994) 18: 312 - 316. BR ElSohly, M. A. , Kopycki, W.
J. , Feng, S. , and Murphy, T. P. Analysis of flunitrazepam metabolites and other substances in alleged cases of sexual assault. In: Proceedings of the 50 th Anniversary Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Colorado Springs, Colorado: 1998. BR Huang, W.
and Moody, D. E. Immunoassay detection of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine metabolites in blood, Journal of Analytical Toxicology (1995) 19: 333 - 342. BR LeBeau, M. , Hearn, W.
L. , Archambault, J. , Rob shaw, D. , Nichols, R. , and Lipman, R. Evidence collection tip sheet: Drug-facilitated rape. In: ASCLD News, Winter 1998, American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors, pp. 28 - 30. BR LeBeau, M. , Andollo, W. , Hearn, W.
L. , Baselt, R. , Cone, E. , File, B. , Fraser, D. , Jenkins, A. , Mayer, J. , Negrusz, A. , Poklis, A. , Walls, H. C. , Raymond, L. , Robertson, M. , and Said, J. Recommendations for toxicological investigations of drug-facilitated sexual assaults, Journal of Forensic Sciences (1999) 44: 227 - 230. BR Morland, H. , Smith-Kielland, A. Urine screening for flunitrazepam: applicability of Emit immunoassay [comment], Clinical Chemistry (1997) 43: 1245 - 1246. BR Bibliography:
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Research essay sample on Law Enforcement Officers Sexual Assault
