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Example research essay topic: 20 Th Century Economic Social And Cultural - 2,815 words

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Distinctive Features of Socialism For the last three centuries there has been many political theories and ideologies developed, which were aimed at changing the distribution of wealth and power in a society in a certain way. Socialism is a class of ideologies favoring an economic system in which all or most productive resources are the property of the government. Within this system, the production and distribution of goods and services are administered primarily by the government rather than by private enterprise, and any remaining private production and distribution is heavily regulated by the government rather than by market processes. Socialism aims at a social system based on public ownership of the means of production (Von Mises, 37). Both democratic and non-democratic socialists insist that the government they envision as running the economy must be one that truly reflects the will of the masses of the population.

In practice, socialist economic principles may be combined with an extremely wide range of attitudes toward personal freedom starting from Western European democratic socialism to the more authoritarian socialist regimes of many third world countries to the totalitarian excesses of Soviet-style socialism or communism. A comprehensive and coherent set of basic beliefs about political, economic, social and cultural affairs that is held in common by a sizable group of people within a society. Such interrelated ideas and teachings purport both to explain how political, economic, social and cultural institutions really do work and to prescribe how such institutions ought ideally to operate. Conservative ideologies seek to demonstrate a close correspondence between "the way things are" and "the way things ought to be, " thus legitimizing the existing order in the eyes of those who can be convinced to believe in the ideology. The next form of socialism has come to suggest the ideal human society, and it is called Utopian socialism. Utopian socialists believe that it is possible to create a harmonious, cooperative human society in which everyone is an owner of private property that is, the means of production of wealth (Von Mises, 42).

Utopian socialism originated in France with Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. In England, its founder was Robert Owen. These radical and revolutionary ideologies set unconventional, higher, or even utopian standards with regard to what would constitute a legitimate and supportable social-economic-political system and then demonstrate in detail that the existing order does not even come close to meeting these standards. Therefore, de-legitimizing the existing system and helping to mobilize believers in the ideology for concerted action to reform or overthrow the existing order. Socialism covers many diverse and divergent ideas and theories. It is therefore very difficult to define it as one ideology in particular.

This is an important point because the question is a definitive statement about what socialism is. In fact, it is well summed up by Anthony Wright who wrote, "There is no shortage of available definitions of what socialism is, but there is a shortage of agreed definitions. " Because socialism covers such a wide range of ideas, the importance of equality and liberty varies between different theorists. Further to this, it is also worth noting that different theorists define the concepts of equality and liberty differently. However, most theories use either liberty or equality, or both, even if only in criticism of each other. In an attempt to define socialism as an ideology, many socialists agree that a characteristic theme of socialism is a commitment to equality. However, they all differ in their opinion over the extent of its importance.

Some perceive it to be the goal of society whilst others see it simply as a means to an end. When socialism emerged as a recognizable ideology in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth it was strongly influenced by some egalitarian thinkers and ideas. These included Rousseau and his demands for popular sovereignty, Robespierre and the Jacobites and Babeuf and his society of equals. Babeuf even said, "For the true and living equality we will give up everything. Let the arts perish if need be! But let us have the equality!" This quote goes to show that for some socialists, equality is their primary goal.

The socialist tradition is one of opposition to the capitalist idea of competition amongst individuals in the name of personal gain. Babeuf also went on to say, "Society must be made to operate in such a way that it eradicates once and for all the desire of man to become richer, wiser and more powerful than others. " This has led commentators to claim that equality is the key socialist view of society because it seeks to replace the inequality of the capitalist society with an equal social structure. According to Crosland, equality would remove social antagonism because the divide due to the envy and resentment causes the class war. On the other hand, socialism also has many libertarian thinkers and ideas. Liberal socialists believe socialism to be the key to maximizing liberty through the self-direction of small communities. They want the removal of oppressive state and class structures in order to free the individual.

Perhaps the most notable was Fourier who demanded complete freedom from crippling conventions and was quite prepared to have both the rich and the poor in his Utopia. He even went so far as to envisage the investment of capital for profit. However, libertarianism is often seen as too radical. Libertarianism is the demand for freedom in the sense of the total absence of restraints, external and internal.

There are some prominent socialists, who have made equality their primary aim. Syndicalism is non-libertarian because it emphasizes group loyalty and working class solidarity and sees their future society organized along trade union lines. Lenin also disassociates himself from the idea of liberalism. He saw the future of society being based on the idea of equality and said that after the revolution there would be a move "form formal equality to actual equality. " However, Lenin does go on to modify his stance and his "New Economic Policy signaled a compromise with private enterprise and an acceptance of the importance of liberty. " A closer look at the writings of Marx, Engels, Tawney, and Crosland will go to further show how the ideas of equality and liberty are actually linked within socialist thought. Marx, especially in his later works, adopts a strong egalitarian tone. He talks of a vast association of people, the establishment of industrial armies, and the need for a directing authority for production in the future.

Of the Gotha program he writes "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs!" This quote outlines how goods would be allocated along egalitarian lines under communism. In addition, it shows that he is putting equality over liberty. According to Marx, there is no liberal right for the individual to pursue greater personal wealth, but that this is not infringing on his freedom because under communism, men will find true freedom as social individuals. Marx does not believe there to be any conflict between his specific ideas of equality and liberty. However, Marx's own specific type of equality is the equality of distribution according to needs and not the bourgeois concept of equality of treatment. Engels goes on to argue that equality means different things to different people at different times. "Thus the idea of equality, whether in its bourgeois or in its proletarian form, is itself a historical product, the creation of which required definite historical conditions that in turn themselves presuppose a long previous history.

It is consequently, anything but an eternal truth. " He makes a further point that goes on to link equality and liberty by saying that an individual cannot be free if he is at the economic mercy of another. "Equality must not be merely apparent, must not apply merely to the sphere of the state, but must also be real, must also be extended to the social and economic spheres. " Crosland and Tawney also believe that equality and liberty are interdependent. Tawney states that "liberty is rightly preferred to equality when the two of them are in conflict, but then goes on to qualify this by saying that if liberty is properly interpreted in an economic, social and political sense then it is in fact, equality in action. Crosland still argues that equality is still an important socialist ideal but a change in the capitalist system has forced socialists to change their focus. Economic equality and the redistribution of wealth will no longer result in greater overall equality. Instead, socialists must now focus on social equality, such as improving equality in education, in order to improve overall equality. However, he does go on to admit that this idea is still quite liberal but that most liberals would agree that everyone should have equal opportunity for wealth, advancement and renown.

The seemingly swift rush of technological and industrial development throughout the 18 th and 19 th centuries led to success and advancement in the standard of living and abilities and comforts available to the public. This heightened life was not, however, available to all people equally. Instead, a reaction on the side of economic and social survival took over. The owners of large industrial giants started gaining the good life brought about by this time, while those who worked for them received little that their work reaped. This created a separation by class based on wealth and position in society. Not dissimilar to the class systems of old medieval society, these new classes, first seen in Britain and France, separated the workers, or proletarians, from the few, rich controllers of industry called the Bourgeoisie.

This split in society called out for something to help the oppressed majority, to which ideas of Socialism and Karl Marx's The Communist Manifesto responded. In this short, easy to understand pamphlet, Marx attempts to first, discredit and bring blame to the Bourgeoisie while pushing for an answer lying in an economic and political structure known as socialism and communism. Either name can be used because there is little difference between the two styles or ideals as well as a common place next to each other as each develop themes throughout the history of the 19 th and 20 th century. Each system touched every populated continent in the world, usually beginning with socialist movements, then leading to communist radicals, and, in a few countries, lead to actual practices of these styles, particularly communism.

The theme of socialism through history began with this reaction to the industrial revolution. The proletariat's, or working lower class, searched for a way to rise above the stage they were at. Great Britain and France led the way in testing the waters of socialism as an alternative to the current situation of economic and social confusion. As Marx stated, laborers worked for the tycoons to live only so long as they find work, and to find work only so long as their labor increases capital (Marx 13) for the bourgeoisie and the new life created from this work and capital.

Based on early socialist thought, The Communist Manifesto, written in Germany, appealed to this class as a simple to read, and understand, pamphlet attacking the Bourgeoisie for their selfish, industry-clutching grasp that choked the good life from the majority of the public, the workers. The socialism and communism spoken of in the manifesto begin with the workers. It speaks of this majority as something that can, and should, raise itself up and have a voice in what is happening. It seemed that the times of smoke filled skies, and apparent success abolished politics and organization of nations and focused only on the success and improvement of economics and technology. This mirage gave hope to the poor majority to rise up and put a socialist or communistic order in the place of politics where nothing seems to be happening. Beginnings of socialism in Great Britain and Europe were seen in workers unions formed for the good of the people.

These unions provided a voice for the oppressed workers whose lives suffer while their bosses lavish themselves in the fruits of the lower classes labor. In a small way, this is towards the goal outlined by Marx, leading to a level, and equal society, free of classes and poor distribution of products. Nevertheless, unions alone cannot bring about the full-fledged socialist or communist society, which thrives on equally redistributed property, wealth, and work. The nation government must be changed. Marx's plan of change from the bottom up could only spur revolutionary and idealistic groups in Britain.

Britain is now caught in an awkward situation. A history of monarchial rule and class system makes the current class system not seem so wrong or out of the ordinary, and its absence of full capitalism and democracy also prevent it from completely despising its current situation or alternative. So, should she accept socialism? From the governments stand point; it sees no political or economic purpose. Great Britain as a whole is enjoying the fruits it is producing with its great industry and trade flourishing. This whole, however, has the eyes of upper industrial moguls and does not speak the same as the lower class majority, which is suffering in this time of success.

Rise in appeal for socialism and a sneak of socialistic parties into the governments of western Europe spurred a scare that led to beginnings of social policies to try to appease the public, without hurting the individual and independent success which drove the capitalistic state of Europe at this time. The loose upraises and socialist political parties were scattered and disorganized in the early 19 th century. Karl Marx attempted to unite these people with writing The Communist Manifesto. This simple guideline was an attempt to organize and bring better understanding to those scattered movements of workers who were trying to change the current economy of Britain. Nothing huge was able to come to the government level to make way in the form of Socialism.

Upon the beginning of World War I, efforts seemed to stop in the push for Socialism as Great Britain joined in the war and many workers joined the armed forces in support of their nation in the form of nationalism. This was a first test for socialism, in which it failed. In between wars, however, the class system emerged again as a forefront issue. The current capitalistic and democratic state of Britain was not satisfactory for the workers. Spreading passed the Second World War; workers became more vocal with a strike composed of over 2 million workers. This strike, however, proved how change from the bottom could not bring lasting effects, but instead, it gave a boast to what was called the labor party which brought about socialistic efforts inside parliament including government control of roadways, railways, coal and steel.

Socialism and affects on Great Britain all the way, until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979, which put a halt to socialist and communist ideas in Great Britain, as well as affecting those ideas worldwide. This does not mean, however, that the socialist movement sweeping the world from early 19 th to the 20 th century did not affect it. The Communist Manifesto was the publication that really sent the shock waves worldwide. Although socialistic and communistic ideals formed in Western Europe, it took the writing of Karl Marx and Frederic Engels to unite socialists world wide as to the true advantages of their beliefs. Equality might be the classical principal of socialism but the claim that socialism is primarily concerned with equality and not liberty is not justified. Socialism is such a broad ideology that the claim made in the title can only be applied to specific thinkers and not socialism as a whole.

Liberalism been rejected as an ideological creature of capitalism but it has also been incorporated into and fulfilled by socialism. Socialism as a theme in history is seen throughout the world as a reaction to the industrial revolution. Einstein comments that socialism's goal as to overcome and advance beyond the predatory phase of human development, economic science in its present state can throw little light on the socialist society of the future. Socialism attempt to change the worlds politics and sense of being seems to have faded out by the 21 st century. However, it is suggested that those socialistic policies still are present. They just integrated into the democracies and capitalistic economies.

Bibliography: A. Wright, Socialism's: Theories and Practices, (Oxford University Press, 1986) R. N. Berlin, Socialism, (J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd. , London, 1975) C.

A. R. Crosland, The Future of Socialism, (Jonathan Cape, 1963) F. Engels, Anti-During; pt 1 ch X K.

Marx, Critique of the Gotha Program Von Mises, L. , Omnipotent government: The rise of the total state and total war. New York: Arlington House (1969).


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