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Have you ever participated in or observed a conflict? How often do you encounter conflict in your life and on your job? Time and again, you will say and of course you will be quite right. What does the notion conflict mean?
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available. (Managing Conflict). In other words, conflict is the open confrontation of two or more sides, which appears as the consequence of mutually exclusive interests and positions. The attempt to get rid of a conflict without clarifying its reasons, without understanding antagonisms, will lead to worsening of situation in spite of time and money you invested.
What are the theories of conflict? Lets begin with behaviorist school. In their micro theory they state that root causes of war lie in human nature and human behavior; and that an important relationship exists between intra personal conflict and conflict that pervades the external social order. The behaviorist school believes in the centrality of the stimulus - response hypothesis. This school seeks to establish whether humans possess either biological or psychological characteristics that would predispose us towards aggression and conflict. They also seek to explore the relationship between the individual and its existence in its environment.
They wish to extrapolate, by way of inductive reasoning, specific variables regarding intra personal conflict and generalizations regarding interpersonal and international conflict. Among the prevalent micro theories they distinguish are: animal behavior, instinct or innate theories of aggression, frustration - aggression theory, social learning theory and social identity theory (Theoretical Framework for Conflict Resolution). Macro theory focuses on the interaction of groups, specifically on the conscious level. The use and exercise of power is a central concept of macro theory of conflict. Macro theorists would agree that power comes in many forms: economic, political, military, even cultural. The common assumptions of macro, or classical theories are that the roots of conflict stem from group competition and the pursuit of power and resources.
These assumptions operate on conscious motivational factors in a material oriented environment. Classical theory capitalizes on observations of group phenomenon for single events in order to study the problem in depth, and to determine the importance and relationships of many variables rather than using few variables for many cases. The predominant methodologies used are historical or case study approaches (Theoretical Framework for Conflict Resolution, chapter # 3). The Enemy System Theory was developed to help explain intractable conflict and was used to explain the Cold War in the early 1990 s before the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is a fusion of developmental psychology and international relations theory.
This theory presents some important conceptualizations which help to create a sophisticated explanatory model of conflict. The Enemy System Theory was developed in the late 1980 s by a group of psychiatrists and international relations practitioners (former members of the American National Security Council and the U. S. State Department), as a model to explain the complexities of group behavior, particularly with regard to antagonistic group relationships. The gist of the Enemy System Theory is the hypothesis that humans have a deep rooted psychological need to dichotomize and to establish enemies and allies. This phenomenon happens on individual and group levels.
This is an unconscious need which feeds conscious relationships, especially in our group lives. This is especially important with regard to the formation of ethnic or national group identities and behavior. Next theory is Conflict Resolution Theory. It assumes that individuals, as members of their identity groups, will strive for their needs within their environment. If they are prevented from this pursuit by elites, other identity groups, institutions and other forms of authority, there will inevitably be conflict. The only solution is for the groups to work out their problems in an analytical way, supported by third parties who act as facilitators and not authorities.
This is particularly relevant when the conflict is over needs which cannot be bargained and not material interests, which can be negotiated and compromised (Theoretical Framework for Conflict Resolution, Chapter # 3). The next theory is Game theory, which is a distinct and interdisciplinary approach to the study of human behavior. The disciplines most involved in game theory are mathematics, economics and the other social and behavioral sciences. Game theory was intended to confront just this problem: to provide a theory of economic and strategic behavior when people interact directly, rather than "through the market. " In game theory, "games" have always been a metaphor for more serious interactions in human society.
Game theory may be about poker and baseball, but it is not about chess, and it is about such serious interactions as market competition, arms races and environmental pollution. But game theory addresses the serious interactions using the metaphor of a game: in these serious interactions, as in games, the individual's choice is essentially a choice of a strategy, and the outcome of the interaction depends on the strategies chosen by each of the participants. On this interpretation, a study of games may indeed tell us something about serious interactions (Strategy and Conflict: An Introductory Sketch of Game Theory). Positive psychology interprets conflict as the important peculiarity of our life, as untapped resources, as the possibility to develop.
They say that conflicts expose weaknesses, show the direction where efforts should be bent to in order to create viable organization. Absence of conflicts may be interpreted as stability, but life changes all the time, new circumstances appear and the line between stability and stagnation is not that wide. A lot of attention is paid to the management of conflict. The theory says that one should be able to control and operate the conflict not to waste time, efforts and money for its resolution (Psychological Analysis of Conflict).
Conflict may be functional or dysfunctional. Dysfunctional conflict refers to unhealthy behaviors within an organization such as distortion and withholding of information to hurt other decision makers, hostility and distrust during interaction. Functional conflict refers to the healthy and vigorous challenge of ideas, beliefs, and assumptions. Dysfunctional conflict in the decision-making process has detours consequences for both quality strategy and market performance, whereas functional conflict improves both of them (Sales-engineering Conflict). The origin of conflicts in an organization may be the following: the structure and strategy are not adequate he rights and obligations of staff are not clear the tasks are stated ambiguously and vaguely the personnel does not satisfy the requirements to fulfill the stated tasks and finally weak management, chaos in the organization and therefore struggle for power of the leader.
So what can we do with a conflict? How can you manage disagreements in ways that build, rather than harm, personal and collegial relationships? Such disagreements or conflicts can occur between individuals or between groups of people. Here are five strategies for managing stressful situations in a team (Conflict management strategies and styles). Collaborating: win / win This the strategy which leads to achievement creative solutions that will satisfy both parties concerns and maintenance of good relationships in a team.
The strategy is used in organizations where staff is highly trusted, when you dont want to bear full responsibility, when you want to share adopted resolutions, in the situations when the team is eager to change the previous decisions because of new information or when you have to work through animosity and hard feelings. Of course, there are some drawbacks of the strategy, such as big time and energy inputs or intentional usage of other peoples trust. Compromising: win some / lose some or you bend, I bend. The strategy serves to find the compromise, when both parts struggle for the same goal, but at the same time each part can maintain something of its original position. Used when either goals, or time, or status of parts is equally important. This strategy may not work although, as sometimes important values and long-term objectives can be derailed in the process; it can also promote cynicism, which does not any good for achievement of serious goals.
Accommodating: I lose / you win. Working toward a common purpose is more important than any of the peripheral concerns; the strategy serves to protect relationships. Use this strategy when you know that you cant win, or its not the right time or the importance of harmony for you is more important than winning. But you should bear in mind that in this case you may stay without any attention to your ideas or lose credibility and influence. Competing: win / lose Do you consider conflict to be the equivalent of competition? Than this is your strategy.
Its used when you are sure you are right or need to protect your rights or personality; or you need to take a quick decision. The negative side of the strategy is that it can escalate further conflict. Avoiding: no winners / no losers. You withdraw when you understand that this is neither the right time nor the right place for talking about this. The variants of usage are: when you dont want to ruin relationships, when you need more information; when you see that you have no chances to win, especially when your emotional involvement is too strong.
You have to bear in mind although that postponing the decision may make the conflict even worse. You may use different strategies, but main thing you should remember is that unsolved conflict resembles uncured disease. You may somehow heal it, but then youll have problems with it again. There are some important rules which can help you solve the conflict situation successfully. They may be resumed as following (Psychological Analysis of Conflict): take account of the past be on the alert when you answer the questions, which in actual fact are statements watch your opponents face (especially eyes), his manners, breathing, posture and so on. These observation can give away his real thoughts and intentions pay more attention to what has been said, and even more attention to what has not been said dont take all the conflicts equally dangerous interpret a conflict as it is in reality, not as it may be do not fail to see a conflict if it really exists.
Is the conflict good or bad? It is neither good nor bad. It exists. Every conflict has its own hidden dangers and you can solve it only when the reasons are evident to you. Actually conflict is vitally necessary for all life processes, so it is very important to know how to control it.
Uncontrolled conflicts lead to collapse, loss of money, time and efforts. Of course not every conflict can be solved in the manner of compromise when everybody is happy. But conflict can stimulate thinking and promote conscious planning and usage of it for development of organization. Sometimes to promote another part to cooperation it is useful to demonstrate power. Sometimes the leader has to oppose the whole staff of his company, especially when serious changes are planned. Anyway, conflict is the inherent part of our life.
If you grow you need more space therefore you are in conflict. Successful leader should be able to apply any conflict management strategy as the situation requires. 1. Managing Conflict. A Guide for Watershed Partnerships. Retrieved May 6, 2004 from Conservation Technology Information Center, project The Know Your Watershed, Web Site web 2. Cunningham, W.
G. (2004). Theoretical Framework for Conflict Resolution. Retrieved May 6, 2004, from web 3. Strategy and Conflict: An Introductory Sketch of Game Theory. (This material has been superceded by Dr. McCain's textbook, Game Theory: A Nontechnical Introduction to the Analysis of Strategy. ) Retrieved May 7, 2004, from web 4. Miklashevskiy A. (2004).
Psychological Analysis of Conflict. Retrieved May 5, 2004 from web 5. Antonio B. , Sales-engineering Conflict in an Under-managed Environment Through the Power/Knowledge Perspective. Retrieved May 5, 2004, from University of Ljubljana Web Site web 6. Culbertson H. (2004). Conflict management strategies and styles Retrieved May 6, 2004, from Southern Nazarene University Web Site web
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Research essay sample on Theoretical Framework Conflict Resolution
