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Example research essay topic: Rene Descartes Dualism Meditations - 1,728 words

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Rene Descartes dualism (meditations) Nowadays it is rather hard to believe that few centuries ago each branch of science contained philosophy in its basis. Mathematic, Physic, Chemistry (or rather Achemisrty), Astronomy were based on certain philosophical theories. It is hard to believe that long time ago scientists made their researches in every possible and available branch of science. They were in interested in the world that surrounded them. With the help of their knowledge they tried to rationalize the process of nature, to reveal the secrets of universe. Some theories may seem to be fabulous and rather strained but many of them are topical even now.

Rene Descartes is one of the most important Western philosophers. He made researches in Physic, Physiology and Mathematic, gave a totally new direction of development to the philosophy, founded analytic geometry. His philosophy refused to accept the Aristotelian and Scholastic traditions that had dominated philosophical thought throughout the Medieval period; it attempted to fully integrate philosophy with the 'new's cience's; and Descartes changed the relationship between philosophy and theology (Douglas Burnham, James Fieser) In this paper I would like to discuss the most important achievements of Rene Descartes. Of course I will talk about the two most widely known of Descartes' philosophical ideas: a method of hyperbolic doubt, and the argument that, though he may doubt, he cannot doubt that he exists. I will provide you information, which I found and will edit it with my own thoughts based on the material Ive read. I want to start this paper with biographical interlude.

Im totally convinced that it is far more easier to understand someones ideas if you knew something about that person. Rene Descartes was born in a village near Tours in France in 1596. He got his education at a Jesuit college, which was firmly grounded in the scholastic tradition. He studied many subjects but especially excelled in mathematic. By 1619, under the influence of the Dutch mathematician and scientist Beeckman, Descartes began his exceptionally fertile mathematical studies of natural phenomena. (Douglas Burnham, James Fieser) Further his carrier developed in the same direction. I think that his education was the main reason of such course of research.

He was taught to separate false from truce. According to Douglas Burnham and James Fieser This meant that he could be sceptical concerning the philosophical and theological positions taken by the Church, while maintaining his Catholic faith. In 1629 Descartes moved to Holland and since then only occasionally visited France. He preferred to preserve his privacy. Rene is considered to be a father of modern philosophy. Swami Krishnananda states In him the modern tendency to free philosophy from the aesthetic interests of the ancient Greeks and the theological bent of the medieval scholastics, and to rest it mainly on scientific and rational foundations, took its origin.

Descartes based his philosophy on the principles of self-evident truths, which we can correctly deduce all other truths in a logical order. His main foal was to find such a self- evident principle on which to base all further research and discovery. Descartes began his research with doubt. He stated that everything needed to be called in question, because our opinion on this or that is based only on our senses. And we can be totally sure about our sensations.

Assure ourselves of the reality of things which appear to correspond to our sensations. We cannot even be sure of the reality of our own bodies; perhaps we are dreaming that we have bodies; perhaps we are dreaming that we are seeing objects outside. How can we know whether we are waking or dreaming? We may be entirely mistaken in believing what we see. Perhaps the world is only in the mind, in imagination. It may be just an illusion produced by thought (Swami Krishnananda) Descartes advised to doubt all and everything.

Even mathematical truths may be doubtful because in this world there is nothing certain. It may seem quite intricate and odd theories but they reveal true genius of Rene Descartes. Descartes states that in spite the evidence of universal uncertainty, the fact that we doubt is itself not doubtful. In other words the basis of doubt can be doubted. He based his observations from the Bacon's theories There is nothing so evident or so certain that it may not be controverted. Whence then this widespread and deep-rooted anarchy?

From the fact that our inquiries are haphazard" (Clodius Piat). If we doubt we think, and this is certain. And so the existence of the thinker also must be certain. 'Cogito, ergo sum', I think, therefore, I am in such words Descartes summarize his theory. The process of thinking itself is the basis for spiritual existence of individual. Knowledge is the only true thing in this ever-changing world.

Here is the self-evident rational basis for all deduction in philosophy. This is a universal and necessary proposition (Swami Krishnananda) His scholastic schooling and great possessiveness to mathematic took him on the path of finding a universal foundation for the sciences. His mathematical turn of mind needed to organize everything. Descartes was a mathematic to the core. And it doesnt surprise me that for his philosophical method he set very strict rules. His method of Seeking The Truce was strongly based on initial procedure of doubting.

This idea is pursued with the utmost ruthlessness in the Meditations. All the disciplines he learned had they limits and couldnt satisfy Descartes. So he made a universal list of methodological rules: The first was never to accept anything as true if I did not have evident knowledge of its truth; that is, carefully to avoid precipitate conclusions and preconceptions, and to include nothing more in my judgments than what presented itself to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I had no occasion to doubt it. The second, to divide each of the difficulties I examined into as many parts as possible and as may be required in order to resolve them better.

The third, to direct my thoughts in an orderly manner, by beginning with the simplest and most easily known objects in order to ascend little by little, step by step, to knowledge of the most complex, and by supposing some order even among objects that have no natural order of precedence. And the last, throughout to make enumerations so complete, and reviews so comprehensive, that I could be sure of leaving nothing out. (I, 120). This method has its advantages but it was criticized and dismissed by mathematician Pierre de Fermat. And Leibniz says that Descartes' rules amount to saying 'take what you need, and do what you should, and you will get what you want. ' (Douglas Burnham, James Fieser) Rene Descartes was a very religious man and he was fascinated by the Aristotle's theories on mind and body.

As the result we are know facing the famous theory of dualism (mind-body problem). This theory was somewhat based on the Aristotle points of view. But Descartes considered God to be incorporeal, intelligence, all knowing, good and just. He is omnipotent, eternal. God has no changes, no modes of attribute, and no modifications. "I know no less clearly and distinctly that an actual and eternal existence belongs to His nature than I know that whatever I can demonstrate of any figure or number belongs truly to the nature of that figure or number" (Disc. de la meth. , 4 e partie; 5 e Medit. ; Rep.

aux premieres obj. ) Descartes stated that human beings are composed of two kinds of substances, mind and body. The thinking part is a mind, a conscious. It can understand things, wills for something and get the power to imagine. Understanding, conceiving, doubting, affirming, denying, willing, refusing, imagining, feeling, desiring -- these are the activities of what I call my soul. Now all these activities have one common quality: they cannot take place without thought or perception, without consciousness or knowledge.

Thought then is the essential attribute of the soul. The soul is "a thing that thinks" (2 e Med. , Princ. , 1 re partie) The soul is invisible and self-moving. A body on other hand is visible and can be observed from such points as name, extension, shape, size and motion. It is moved by the other bodies according to the mechanical laws.

A body is not perfect and cannot exist by itself. Though it can causally interact with soul. Descartes thought that human mind move body by moving the small part of the brain. And in turn motions in the same part of the brain produce sensations and emotions. As if you get you hand burned, the burn produces mental pain, this pain produce material effect and you withdraw you hand immediately. This problem of whether mental entities are different in nature from physical entities continues to be a main concern of philosophers and psychologists. (Anastasia Winnicki) The curios (or may be not, but therefore still important) thing is that Descartes philosophical views didnt rely on the senses.

He argued that bodies differ how they appear through senses. There is nothing in bodies that resembles them but they have properties, which can be qualified: name, shape, size, motion and extension. And colors, sounds, tastes, smells, heat, cold are merely sensations created by our imagination. Hi did not believe that vacuum exists. A vacuum in his definition was a body in virtue of being extended in three dimensions. (Anastasia Winnicki) Rene Descartes made a tremendous contribution to the all humanity. His researches was influential and not only in the nature sciences but in philosophy as well.

Through centuries numerous beautiful minds were occupied by his theories and most famous and widely studied book, the Meditations on First Philosophy. Locke, Hume, Leibniz and even Kant are only few of them. Nowadays he is the most readable philosopher in the world. It is needless to say that he knew how to draw ones attention. Bibliography Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy Gaukroger, Stephen. Descartes: An Intellectual Biography.

Oxford, 1997. Wilson, Margaret. Descartes. Routledge, 1978. Curley, E. M.

Descartes Against the Sceptics. Blackwell, 1978. Douglas Burnham, James Fieser, Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650), < web > Anastasia Winnicki, Rene Descartes, < web > Clodius Piat, Rene Descartes, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IV, < web > Swami Krishnananda, Studies in Comparative Philosophy, < web >


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