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Interpersonal Deception Theory. The Interpersonal Deception Theory is the theory defining the reasons people lie and the mechanisms of lie. Sometimes people get into situations when they are not honest. Three deceptions forms could be defined.
They are falsification, concealment and equivocation. These are three main issues that constitute the basis for the deception Some scholars define a deception to be the process by which actions are made to induce erroneous inferences to take advantage of them 1. The process of deception is an interactive one. The deception itself is a way of communication and that means it presupposes the presence of at least two parties. The deceptive message is generated during the process of communication. The deceivers have the aim to deceive the counterparty that is why they are active in their attempts 2.
The deceivers trace the reaction of the deceived and constantly change their message in order to make the information more convincing. This communication process requires high level of communication of both parties. The deceivers should apply their utmost abilities in order to present the false information as reality and their counterpart should do their best to define the lie. Such act of deception requires high skills of communication. Another factor that may affect the process of deception is the relation between the individuals on the level of planning. The act of deception can not be carried out unprepared 3.
The spontaneous deceptive acts fail. As it was stated above a person who is supposed to be deceived is ready to such acts and that is why the action may be successful if it is planned properly. The relation between the parties is the key factor in the act of deception. The deceptive act towards the partner is more difficult to carry out than towards the stranger or a relative 4. This definition is true because the partnership relations are formalized by certain rules and regulations. Most of the communications between the partners are focused on business.
In its turn such communications are regulated by the legal documents and it is very difficult to define the border line between just deception and the law or other regulations violations. The problem of the detection of deception is the problem connected with a number of factors. Thus, according to Burgoon and Buller 5 the level of perception of the lie depends upon the level of the social awareness of the receiver. The act of deception is going on both on the verbal and non verbal level. The social awareness of the sender and receiver is the key factor for both parties. The more socially skillful the sender the more social skills should be applied to detect the deception.
Non verbal means are the means to support the verbal part of deception. The failure of deception depends upon the detection. As it was noted above the deception detection requires the skills which are no less developed than those used by the liars. Deception Detection. The problem of the lie detection is the psychological problem. Some people think the lie detection is the problem of our everyday experience.
If someone is asked how the liar may be detected most of the people answer: Liars avert their gaze 6. The studies have shown that this indication is not correct and sometimes is not associated with lying. The psychologists have been studying the liars behavior in order to work out common approach to the lie detection. It is understandable that the society needs to get some unified tool to define the liars. The scientists have been testing the physiological symptoms of the liars like hands trembling, sweetening, voice changes etc. They have come to a conclusion there is no unified test to define the liar.
Some liars may manifest certain physiological signals, but these signals are not unique and some liars may not express them at all. If certain criteria of the behavioral changes are accepted then the communication without such changes may be assumed as truth which is incorrect. The laboratory studies of lie detection are artificial and do not reflect the real state of things and therefore can not be accepted unconditionally. The researchers noticed that the non verbal means are priority over the verbal ones while defining the liars 7.
So the main problem in the lie detection is the separation the fiction from the facts. This problem is very often faced by the police while investigating the crimes. The study of the physical manifestation of the tested person is difficult and may be applied as one of the numerous factors only. People of various cultures, races and backgrounds may express the lie in different ways that is why such investigation is very important to conduct in the USA, a country inhabited by the people of various cultures and backgrounds. Avinoam Sapir, a former Israeli police lieutenant has introduced the SCAN system of the deception detection 8. The system is based on a chain of questions from the simple ones to more complicated questions concerning the police interrogation.
The system considers both verbal indications and non verbal ones. The experimental psychological researches show that the peoples ability to distinguish the lie from the truth is poor 9. People are more accurate to detect the truths than the lies. Ordinary people who are unprofessional fail to define the lie and tend to believe easier because nobody wants to accept lie. So the person in normal situation is ready to accept the information and not to detect the lie.
Special services as well as police face the necessity to define the lie. The people normally can not accept the information in the full scope and then analyze it professionally. Sometimes people are led by own feelings, perceptions and desire to get the truth. The professional lie detectors rely on the behavior of the communicators.
At the same time the professionals realize that the behavioral stereotypes may mislead the investigator. The problem of the professional liar detectors became more significant during the last years and the growth of the national threat to the US from the terrorists formations. The National Strategy for Homeland Security adopted after 9 / 11 tragedy presupposes the improvement of the analytical abilities of the FBI. Moral Aspects of Deception.
Everyone has been taught from the very childhood that the lie is not good. Are there any exceptions from the rule? To what extend the deception may taken in some issues, say in the health care. First of all it is known that the concealment is a form of deception. If the concealment is a form of deception, how the truth may correspond to the main subject of the Hippocratic Oath? Sometimes the truth may bring more harm to the sick person.
It is difficult to define if the concealment is a form of deception in some cases, or it is better to say it is necessary to define deceptive concealment from the non deceptive one. If the top manager gives the order to accountant to hide some information he is breaking the law. The concealment of some companys information from the stakeholders may benefit the person who is involved into such concealment. So the main objective of such person is to deceive. If it were not deception he would have to use other tools as, for example direct lie to gain his goal. It is very difficult sometimes to distinguish between the deceptive concealment and non deceptive one.
Thus, doctor hiding some details from its patient may formally commit the deceptive concealment, but the special doctor patient relations change the general perception of the nature of concealment as deception. Another pattern may be in the aspects connected with the national security. Is it moral from the point of view of theory that a scientist developing new defense means conceals the details of his job? First of all according to Leviathan by Hobbes the individual transfers some of his own rights to the sovereign (government) to enable the sovereign to protect the individuals natural rights. The right to defend the life is the basic natural right.
That is why if an individual in the example mentioned above reveals the details of his job he violates not only the conventional laws but the laws outlined by the Nature defining the right of the individual to protect his own life. Deception in Health Care. The medical care is the sector where the special standards towards the deception should be adopted. The doctors face the dilemma either to reveal all facts regarding the patients health or hide some of the facts thus undermining the image of the hospital they are working at. The Independent studies the case when the daughter took a decision to give her kidney to transplant it to her father. The tests showed that her father was not a biological one 10.
Thus the doctors faced the dilemma either to deceive the facts or keep secret to benefit the family and the health of their patient. The doctors revealed the truth and luckily it did bring any negative consequences. Another issue of deception connected with the health care is when the pharmaceutical companies sometimes advertise new drugs as almost panacea from the fatal diseases. The general practice and theory of deception sometimes contradict each other. Sometimes the concealment in medical science has more ethic aspect than the legal one. It is necessary to distinguish the concealment of a doctor who follows the Hippocratic Oath from that of pharmaceutical companies which give sometimes information which though may not bring hazard to people (otherwise these companies would be prosecuted), but follow their commercial interests.
These companies use the aspiration of the patients to recover thus making profit on the useless food additives in case of serious diseases. From the point of view of ethics there is no need to comment the difference between two types of deception mentioned above. The concealment in the health care is closely connected with that which may affect the peoples health. Sometimes the manufacturers hide the possible consequences of the enterprises functioning. The ignorance of people led to the Chernobyl disaster in the ex-USSR. That ignorance was the direct result of the continuous long term concealment of the threat of nuclear power plants.
Similar things occur nowadays when the scientists protecting the business interests conceal the threats of some newly developed products for example genetically modified once. The problem of the technological progress is that it goes ahead of investigations on hazards that may be brought by this or that invention. The influence of the genetically modified products may be manifested in some decades but the scientists conceal the possible danger of such products because the interests of the health care contradict sometimes the financial interests of the business. Bibliography.
David Ettinger and Philippe Jehiel, Towards a Theory of Deception, available at web Burgoon, J. K. , Buller, D. B. , Floyd, K. , & Grandpre, J. (1996). Deceptive Realities. Communication Research, 23, 724 - 749. Di Battista, P. , & Abrahams, M. (1995).
The Role of Relational Information in the Production of Deceptive Messages. Communication Reports, 8, 120 - 128. Burgoon, J. K. , & Buller, D. B. (1995). Interpersonal Deception.
Journal of Language & Social Psychology, 14, 289 - 313. Carrie Lock, Deception Detection, Science News Online, Week of July 31, 2004; Vol. 166, No. 5, p. 72, available at web Tony Lesce, SCAN: Deception Detection by Scientific Content Analysis, available at web Karl Ask and Par Anders Granhag, Individual Determinants of Deception Detection Performance: Need for Closure, Attributional Complexity and Absorption Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, available at web Daniel K Sokol, Independent, The; London (UK) (Jan 05, 04: 17 AM), available at web Citation David Ettinger and Philippe Jehiel Burgoon, J. K. , Buller, D. B. , Floyd, K. , & Grandpre, J. (1996) Di Battista, P. , & Abrahams Ibid Burgoon, J. K. , & Buller, D. B. (1995) Carrie Lock Ibid Tony Lesce Karl Ask and Par Anders Granhag Daniel K Sokol
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