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Galileo Galileo and Heliocentric Theory In case Copernicus heliocentric theory is the triumph of a new experimental approach, Galileo's contribution to the acceptance of Copernican heliocentric theory shouldnt be underestimated. The matter at issue is that Copernican heliocentric theory in its original form contained no exact description of the orbits of celestial bodies and, then, had no convincing arguments to explain the inconceivability of the motion of the Earth. The first part of the task was solved by Kepler, while the second one was solved by Galileo. Aristotle's paradigm was of no practical use. Bruno made certain conclusions of generally philosophical character from Copernicus theories. Kepler brought Copernicus system to conformity with the latest astronomical data.
Galileo had the task to substantiate Copernicus theory physically. The usage of telescope allowed Galileo to discover the inconsistency between the Aristotle's and Copernicus theories. His discoveries brought enough evidence to refute Aristotle's theory and establish the supremacy of the observation over theoretical reasoning. Yet, the establishment of the supremacy of the methods of observation over the theoretical conclusions wasnt enough to prove the correctness of Copernicus system. Galileo had to provide reasonable explanations to different events, such as why the Earths motion is not accompanied with the hurricane moving in the opposite direction, or why the objects that are thrown up by a person never fall from behind. In order to answer these questions, Galileo studied the phenomena of free-falling bodies.
Although there were some theories explaining this phenomenon, they still were unable to give mathematical substantiation of the problem. Galileo decided to reject the theories and turned to the experiment as the main investigative technique (Galilei). Aristotle's physics acknowledged natural and forcible motion. He considered nature being the principle of motion (Galilei n.
p. ). As far as the motion of the Earth was related to natural type of motion, there was a contradiction between Aristotle's understanding of natural motion from one hand, and the motion of the planets around the Sun along closed trajectories, from the other hand. At the same time, Galileo considered that the true method of investigating whether any motion can be attributed to the earth, and if so what it may be, is to observe and consider whether bodies separated from the earth exhibit some appearance of motion which belongs equally to all (Galilei n. p. ) Galileo used the mathematical- experimental method to formulate a new theory of terrestrial motion.
Galileo's theory contributed to the acceptance of Copernican heliocentric theory and disposed Aristotle's objections to the hypothesis of a moving Earth based on observations of free-falling bodies. Galileo's thoughts expressed in his works hardly could fit Aristotle's world outlook. They had much in common with the theories of Copernicus and Bruno. In 1642 Galileo made several discoveries that strengthened Copernicus theory. For example, Galileo discovered the mountains on the Moons surface. Thus Galileo considered the Moon to be similar to the Earth (by its nature).
On contrary, according to Aristotle (and the Church), the assumption concerning similarities between the celestial and the terrestrial was out of the question. Further, Galileo explained the nature of the ash grey light of the Moon bounced from the Earth. He also discovered four Jupiter's satellites. The fact that satellites circled Jupiter refuted the erroneous assumption that the Earth is the centre of all celestial bodies. Galileo also discovered that Venus, similar to the Moon, change its phases.
Therefore, he came to conclusion that the Venus is a umbilici celestial body that gives the light reflected from the Sun. Further Galileo examined peculiarities of the Venus orbit and came to conclusion that the Venus circles not the Earth, but the Sun. Next, Galileo discovered sun spots and concluded that the Sun turns about its own axis, therefore, axial rotation is peculiar to various celestial bodies (for example, the Sun). Hence it followed that the Earth was only one of the celestial bodies that orbited the Sun in a path. Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems was published in Florence in 1632. It consists of four dialogues.
Three main characters (the first one is Galileo, the second person uphold the principles of Aristotle, and the third one is the educated person who acts in the capacity of the arbitrator. The first day dwells on the study of constancy, invariance and undecided condition of the celestial world. In particular, it is dedicated to sun spots, and mountainous terrain of the Mood. The other party (the person who defends Aristotle's position) denies all scientific discoveries and achievements. The second day is dedicated to the discussion concerning the motion of the Earth. This chapter lays the foundations of the modern dynamics the principle of inertia and the classical principle of relativity.
The principle of inertia is proved by the instrumentality of the reasoning that, to a certain extent, reminds the proof to the contrary (in mathematics). Galileo's principle of relativity had great impact on the modern science and occupies a highly important place in classical physics. The scientist describes his principle in a slow and in-depth way. He offers to find a place to stay alone in a spacious room somewhere in the lower deck of the ship. The observer should have a supply of fly, butterflies, and other flying insects. He also should have the vessel with fishes (Galilei n.
p. ). Then he should suspend the bucket by the rope from the ceiling. The water should be dripping down from the bucket drop by drop into the other bucket with the narrow mouth that should be placed underneath the first bucket. When the ship stands motionless, the observer is offered to watch the course of the experiment. Then the ship should start moving with any degree of velocity, however, with no jerks, bumps and rolling in a bead sea. The fishes will continue moving in different directions, and the insects will continue flying with the same velocity, and the drops will continue dripping with the same consequence.
Therefore, the observer will find no difference between the first and the second experiment. According to Galileo, the cause of the consistency of acts is that the motion of the ship is common to all other things and objects belonging to the ship. To put it in modern way, the principle of relativity can be formulated as follows: the principle of relativity means the invariance of the rules of mechanics under Galilean transformation. The third day dwells on the annual motion of the Earth. Galileo observes the motion of the planets, the Venusian phases, the Jupiter's satellites, and solar spots. These observations allow the scientist to show the inconsistency between the Aristotle's ideas and the data of astronomic observations.
The scientist substantiates the heliocentric system of the world both from geometrical and dynamical points of view. The fourth day is dedicated to the high and low tides of the sea. Galileo erroneously links them to the motion of the Earth; however, there was a hypothesis concerning the high and low tides under the influence of the Moon and the Sun. Yet, Galileo considers the impact of the Moon and the Sun to be the occult characteristics of the celestial attraction, and, logically, doesnt reciprocate the hypothesis.
The Importance of Galileo's Mathematical- Experimental Method It is said that Galileo was the founder of experimental method, as he didnt like the certain theoretical assumption and preferred confirming them by experiments and specific demonstrations (Galileo n. p. ). It doesnt mean that he used the experiments to cognize the nature and its principles. In a sense Galileo used a certain philosophical concept based on impartiality of the evaluation of evidence and obligatory test of truth. It can also be called the scientific data validity and scientific bona fides. Galileo never gives abstract interpretation of his experimental method.
His scientific approach is given in a specific sphere of application. His mathematical- experimental method comprises of several parts. First of all, it implies sensory experience. Secondly, it implies the axiom or current hypothesis (working assumption) (Dobryzcki 60). Thirdly, the method implies mathematical continuation the pinpointing of the logical conformity to natural laws. Finally, it includes experimental test of hypothesis as the supreme criteria of the research.
Galileo's mathematical-experimental method was based on mechanical natural science. The issue of motion has been the centre of Galileo's attention. The discovery of the principle of inertia and the effect of free-falling bodies had great impact on the future of almost all sciences. According to Galileo, sensory experience is the initial point of cognition.
Yet, the sensory experience alone is unable to provide the reliable knowledge. The knowledge can be reached by a number of systematic and realistic (or conceptual) experiments based on exact quantitative and mathematical description (Butts 118). Galileo criticized the ingenuous experience and proved that the reliable data in its primordiality are not the initial element cognition. Therefore, the reliable data require specific theoretical prerequisites. To put it differently, the experience should be preceded by specific theoretical assumptions. Thats why Galileo (in contrast to Francis Bacon) was convinced that the initial data (factual data) cannot exist in primordiality, but in one way or another they are made to flow through the specific theoretical vision of reality, in the light of which they (the facts) are interpreted in one way or another.
In such a way, the experience is not just a data description, but rather the experience received during the process of numerous assumptions and idealizations. Galileo distinguished two main methods of experimental research in his studies: Analytical method (method of resolutions) the scientific prognostication of the sensory experience using different mathematical methods (models), abstractions and idealizations. This method singles out the elements of reality (the events that are difficult to imagine), which are beyond the reach of the human direct perception (for example, instantaneous velocity). To put it differently, it is possible to single out the limit phenomena of cognition that are logically possible but hardly be imaginable in reality.
Synthetically deductive method (the method of compositions). According to this method, certain theoretical schemes are developed on the basis of magnitude relation. These schemes may be used to interpret specific events and explain their occurrence. In the final analysis, the reliable data occur as the unity of synthetic and analytical, sensory and rational. In such a way, a distinguishing feature of Galileo's method is scientific empiricism significantly different from the everyday experience. This method allowed Galileo to make the most important discoveries and was conductive to the acceptance of Copernican heliocentric theory and disposed Aristotle's objections to the hypothesis of a moving Earth based on observations of free-falling bodies.
Works Cited Butts, R. E. New Perspectives on Galileo. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1978.
Dobryzcki, Jerzy. The Reception of Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1972. Galilei, Galileo.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. 1632. 22 June 2007 < web >.
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