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... network of agents rapidly increased and expanded throughout north and beyond United States. Freedom's Journals representatives were widely spread out in various cities including Salem and Boston, Massachusetts; Providence, Rhode Islands, Philadelphia and Columbia, Pennsylvanian; Albany, New York; Princeton and Newark, New Jersey; and Washington, DC, Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Apart from this, Freedom's Journal had agents in abroad including Fredericksburg, Virgina, Liverpool, England, Elizabethtown, North Carolina, and Waterloo, Canada. African-American sailors from the north have built-up links in south, establishing underground channels in different cities for sharing the anti-slavery information and text, such as Walkers Appeal. Freedom's Journal distributions were outstanding after publishing Walkers Appeal an article written by David Walker.
Moreover, Freedom's Journal established its own way to the free and enslaved African-American in the south. 7. CONTENT OF THE PERIODICALS Freedom's Journal was initially comprised of four pages and four columns each. When the management was under Russwurm, Freedom's Journal was converted to eight pages of three columns each. The paper was comprised of local, national, and global news.
The paper column also contained editorials, messages, advertisements, literary contributions, current issues such as, colonization a concept created by the members of American Colonization Society to send Africans back home. African-Americans contributed the most original materials to the paper; all though few white authors occasionally contributed written pieces. Apart from this, articles were often reprinted from other periodicals, which were a common practice on those days. Freedom's Journal main objective were colonization, end to slavery and social justice to the free black community. Articles on these topics permitted free African-Americans to implore their own cause, talk for themselves, and build powerful arguments.
The editors saw the paper as a powerful medium for encouraging and attributing educational goals. The weekly not only promoted education but also itself educated its readers. Cornish and Russwurm often published articles of important issues which reflected the editors views. For example, in 1827 even when authorized editorial stances contradicted colonization, the editors of Freedom's Journal printed articles on both faces of the subject stating that they wish to see the subject fully discussed. This commitment to open and free discussion was valued by the readers. The journal also published biographies of prominent African Americans and listing of birth, death, marriages, of Afro-American community lived in New York.
It published essays, poems, rhetoric and lectures by African-Americans which if not would be accessible only to limited audience. It also printed school, employment news and accommodation listing. The journal widened the global knowledge of the readers by highlighting articles on countries such as Haiti and Sierra Leone. Hence, Freedom's Journal by its publications connected the geographically separated African-Americans, providing them a sense that they are part of the society with common concerns and objective. 8. TRANSFORMATION IN THE LEADERSHIP In September 1827, Cornish publicized his resignation in Freedom's Journal six months from its commencement, and confirmed his resignation by joint consent and good wishes.
Cornish mentioned his health and interest as his grounds for resigning and to dedicate himself wholly to work in the ministry, as a Missionary. However, some resources stated that the decision of Cornish was the result of disagreement with Russwurm over colonization. Indeed, existing information specify that the termination of Cornish and Russwurm partnership was harmonious and not with discontent. Russwurm became the sole leader of the press.
Under his leadership, the objective of the journal experienced a conversion. He started promoting colonization. The majority of their readers were against the papers drastic move in support of colonization. Russwurm began to feature positive editorials about Liberia and its settlers from other sources. Russwurm received complaints from the readers publishing materials from other sources. Though this was common in 19 th century there is no denial that the quality of the paper declined under Russwurm leadership.
An article printed in the journal in April 1828 reports that a meeting was held in Boston the previous month for the purpose of enquiring whether customers and the colored community at large are satisfied with Freedom's Journals way of management. Though people present at the meeting, including David Walker and John. T. Hilton, assured their existing support, Hilton showed strong opposition and some were unfriendly to the interest of the Journal. Russwurm comments in the journals column in December 1828 proved that he received complaints. Even though Russwurm did not convey public support for African colonization until February 1829, his thoughts appears to have begun to shift earlier to his declaration.
Indeed, Russwurm remarked that it was not the hurried conclusion of a moment and that he had considered much on this interesting subject matter. However, articles conflicting colonization continued to be printed during 1828, but in lesser numbers, by late 1828 Russwurm began to print articles in support to colonization of Liberia and its settlers from other sources. Indeed, several subscribers actually did not suspect prior to Russwurm official announcement that his attitude towards colonization was changing. In an editorial printed three weeks after the controversial declaration, Russwurm remarked, the variation in the views on colonization seems to be a seven day wonder to many of our subscribers. Indeed, opposition to Russwurm's editing cannot be drawn on one single concern. Instead, it represents a complex response to his leadership and his work on paper.
In Later, part of 1829 opposition to Russwurm editing increased and Russwurm found the position stressful and finally decided to end Freedom's Journal. 9. TERMINATION OF THE BLACK PRESS Critics describes that Russwurm was weary of his position, which he described to be most frustrating and unrewarding job. It also appeared that Russwurm was thoughtful about colonization in late 1828, and by January 1829, he certainly shifted to a pro-colonization position. In a letter written to As R. R. Grey in January 1829, Russwurm proclaimed that he is planning to give up Freedom's Journal in the view of colonization and willing to be employed in colony in any business.
Thus, the history of predominant newspaper of African-American ended. Soon after that, Russwurm emigrated to American Colony Society of Liberia, and became governor of Maryland colony. Cornish returned and attempted to revitalize the paper in May 1829 under the new name Rights for All, but the paper crumpled in over a year. 10. THE BLACK PRESS FROM 1827 - UNTIL DATE The year 1827 marked the commencement of an era in which African-Americans had deployed the printed word as a means of political protest, when very few means of public expression was available. Before the Civil War, newspapers in the North became a very important force in the anti-slavery movement, after the war, black newspapers in both the North and South helped to build unified communities of previously enslaved African-Americans. Again, during modernization, racialist violence assaulted African-Americans, and once again, the black press took up the responsibility of political activism.
The black press came to life in 1827, by commencement of Freedom's Journal by Russwurm and Cornish. Freedom's Journal ended its publication after only two years, but broke new ground both as experimentation in black entrepreneurship and as the foundation tool for public expression by African-American that were none had existed before. With the commencement of industrialization production, late in 19 th and 20 th century Americans experienced a sudden increase of consumer goods, communications, and transportation technologies. Innovations of new technology and growth of industries moved at exceptional rates. Gaining from the progressing industrialized printing practice and the rising desire for information, newspapers of all types prospered. Meanwhile, black newspapers were also growing in number.
By 1910, there where over 275 black newspapers spread in cities of United States, attaining a growing distribution of half a million readers. In 1920 s and 1930 s, the African-American press offered vital information to its reader looking for job, housing accommodation, and places to purchase that would not discriminate against them. The press also offered optimistic and inspirational images of African-Americans through its columns, pictures, cartoon strips, and other aspects. Meanwhile many black newspapers survived for shorter period due to lack of finance. The papers that continued to exist employed some of the popular black scholars and campaigner as author. They implemented innovative market strategies to enhance circulation.
Simultaneously, they continued to provide their population as a sort of printed public sphere, in which daily concerns could be evaluated, conversed, and discussed. After the war, the black press underwent several changes. During 1940 - 1950, newspapers helped in establishing foundation for the Civil Rights movement. In this era, black press attained greatest accomplishments such as, rigid political activism, growing visibility, and credibility of its journalistic excellence, though it also attained setbacks. Black newspaper become more commercial and become more involved in attracting black readers. By 1960 s, the distribution and the political authority of the black press were diminishing.
Black press is continuing its service until date with lots of process. Even today, the editorial column of black press carries about the problems that African-Americans still face. 11. CONCLUSION Russwurm believed that Freedom's Journal endeavor would be followed by the African-American community and this turned to be factual later. Freedom's Journal acknowledged that free press had a vital role in African-American lives in establishing civil rights, freedom for struggle and self-determination. Freedom's Journal two-year survival, however, helped spawn other Journals. At the end of civil war, more than 40 African-American presses were started but none survived longer due to financial difficulty and small readership.
In 20 th century, more than 1, 200 black presses served African-American community. The base for many African-American newspapers ended long ago, but still large cities print black journals that offer national and international news, as well vital columns for editorials on the troubles that African-American still face. As we appreciate the intricate and affluent history of Freedom's Journal, we discover much about connection of black press to the community, about the varied goals of the editor and readers, and about the significance of the institution that existed 175 years before and acted as a platform for African-Americans to raise their voice, as in the expressions of Cornish and Russwurm, TO PLEAD THEIR OWN CAUSE. 12. REFERENCES Newspaper Article Penn, The African- American-hating Jew Noah, often printed discriminatory misinformation in his newspapers. Afro-American Press, 26. Samuel Miller, Some argued that there should have been more than 800 subscribers to Freedom Journal, "Freedom's Journal, 26 October 1827.
Frankie Hutton, 1827 1860, Readership to the periodicals was higher than circulation numbers as publication, The Early Black Press in America, Westport, CT, 1993. 13. BIBLIOGRAPHY Newspaper Article Bacon, Jacqueline. "The History of Freedom's Journal: A Study in Empowerment and Community. The Journal of African American History 88. 1 (2003): 1 +. Jordan, William G.
Black Newspapers and America's War for Democracy, 1914 - 1920. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Miltenberger, Scott. "In the Shadow of Slavery: African-Americans in New York City, 1625 - 1863. Journal of Social History 39. 2 (2005): 558 +. Peter P. Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance, University Park, PA, 1997, 91.
Samuel E. Cornish and John B. Russwurm, "Slavery in the West Indies: Untitled editorial of Freedom's Journal, "To the Patrons and Friends. Freedom's Journal, 11 May 1827, 14 Sep 1827. Samuel E.
Cornish and John B. Russwurm, Mordecai, letter to editors in Freedom's Journal, Major Noah's 'Negroes; Freedom's Journal, 24 Aug 1827, 17 Aug 1827. Samuel Miller, Letter to editors of the New-York Observer in Freedom's Journal, Freedom's Journal, FJ, 26 October 1827, 21 Sep 1827. Spellman, Charles G. "The Black Press: Setting the Political Agenda during World War II. Negro History Bulletin Dec. 1993: 38 +. V.
P. Franklin, Hinks, Pride and Wilson, Black Self-Determination: A Cultural History of African American Resistance (Brooklyn, NY, 1992), 177 - 78; To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren, Negro Journalism, 3 - 4; History of the Black Press, 7. 193. JOURNAL ARTICLE John B. Russwurm to R. R. Gurney, 26 February 1827.
Records of the American Colonization Society, reel 1.
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Research essay sample on African American Community 20 Th Century
