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Human behavior is influenced and shaped by social forces and personal characteristics. Work behavior is social behavior. To understand gender related issues one has to build a joint construct of individual agents and their social cultural context. This is even more true when the countries involved are oceans apart as in this study i. e. the USA and India.
Different nations have different cultural heritages which are values collectively held by a majority of population (possibly differentiated by social classes), and these values are transferred from generation to generation through education, early childhood experiences in the family, schools and through socialization in organizations and institutions. These values become social norms for that society. It is hard to see this proce ss in one's own culture. A deep and painfully acquired empathy for other cultures is required before one becomes sensitive to the range of social norms. , for truths in one society may be falsehoods in another. Hosted (1980) after analyzing research data from forty different modern nations has come up with a scale of characteristics that can be used to distinguish the prevailing cultures in various countries of the world. 2 Based on that scale Americans would be characterized as high in individualism, low in power distance, low on uncertainty avoidance, and high on masculinity. Indians (middle class) would be high on individualism, high on power distance, high on uncertainty avoidance, and high on masculinity.
Management itself is very much an American concept. Other countries can learn new ideas in management and organizational politics from America, however to apply to one's own setting, needs prudence and judgment Indian middle class already shares American values about achievement, that is the reason perhaps McClelland could build on those values when he did research in India. 3 Up until 1954 researchers tended to ignore females workers as subjects of their research. Between 1954 - 66 sex-role measures developed. From 1974 to 1982 androgyny was established as sex-role ideal. 4 Later, the females researchers pointed out some meaningful differences between the sexes and new theories of sex-roles are still in formation. 5, 6 As far as management motivation is concerned most of the recent studies show that there is very little difference in the aspirations and goals between males and females in Library and Information Science and other fields. 7, 8, 9 The experience by females of finding a "glass-ceiling" (1991) 10 at the top of the promotion ladder, and the lower salaries have brought to the front how personal motivation is held hostage to the stereotypical social values about sex-roles in our societies, even to the level of human exploitation.
These conditions prompt further research. The concept of achievement-motivation draws on four basic theories: -Need fulfillment, Social Learning, Personality, and Development. The basic needs of survival, pleasure and contribution motivate humans to seek employment. 11 Economic conditions, a sense of devaluation of the domestic, and a desire to find self-fulfillment drive majority of women into the job market. Social learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to individual factors in the development of personality.
Elements beyond the control of the individual exert a major influence on career choice. The principal task confronting a person is the development of techniques to cope effectively with the environment. 12, 13, 14 As Major pointed out: (1974) Achievement is a function of more or less ephemeral social expectations that are embodied in what we call norms. In a very real sense, a social group tells a person what to strive for as well as how to attain this end. The effect of such norms is clearly an important variable in an achievement situation. (p. 66). 15 Family and friends have a significant effect on occupational choices. Peer and parental expectations influence the vocational aspirations of youth. Girls have been taught not to aspire for high prestigious occupations. 16 Sex role socialization leads women to focus on marriage rather than career.
From this early experience comes the notion that one survives by marrying and taking care of the m an, who must earn the living. Girls learn to satisfy their pleasure needs and their contribution needs by direct service to others. 17 Social values are changing in the USA as well as in the rest of the world. Worsening economic conditions, need for two incomes per family, rising divorce rates, and insecurity in marriage are prompting women to plan and prepare for a career. Younger women realize that they are more likely to satisfy their survival needs directly through their own earnings rather than indirectly through the in come of their spouses. Medical and technological advances such as amniocentesis, artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilization and surrogate motherhood, provide women a greater control over their lives and bodies.
Added to this is the concept of smaller families and longer life expectancy. These concepts give women more freedom and choice to plan and prepare for such eventualities. 18 Personality-Changing economic conditions may have driven women into the labor market, but after being in the workforce for a few decades they realize that paid employment along with satisfying their basic financial needs, also fulfills their individual needs of independence, provides them with a greater control of environment, and enables them to contribute more meaningfully to the some tal and personal needs. Through the career they engage in productive work, develop skills and talents and find self-fulfillment 19 The challenge of work that is valued by the society, gives them a sense of achievement, and a realization of self-worth. This gain of self-esteem in large part is instrumental in satisfying their pleasure and contributory needs. 20, 21 Recent studies of females in professional employment show that men and women do not differ in self-ratings, self confidence and work values. 22 Also, with the development of better measuring instruments of job evaluation there is a narrowing of the differences in the styles of management, motivation and leadership between males and females.
Although most gender related issues like pay equity, sexual harassment, child-care needs, flexible schedules, minority and healthcare issues, started as feminist agenda, yet both men and women have benefited from the debate, and the resultant solutions at the workplace. 3 Thus one can conclude that the basic work motivation is the same for men and women, but due to early social and cultural influences we make different choices. 24 Developmental theories- Developmental theories emphasize lifetime development and change. High achieving women have high expectations in both career and home areas. 25, 26 For women to prepare for management and to develop self-confidence would be through education and training. Today, there is a dramatic increase in the number of women pursuing graduate and professional education. In the USA fifty four percent of college students are women, 36 % of them are enrolled in business; 33 % are law school students, and 13 % of engineering students. In Library and Information Science ever since 1987 more women than men earned masters (79. 9 %) and now even doctoral degrees (68 %). 27 Women are undertaking in-service training and continuing education courses to improve on their skills and to stay abreast of the career needs and innovations in the field. Such exposure makes women aware of their strengths and boosts their self-confidence.
Young men and women strive to be financially independent, prepare for a career and obtain recognition from colleagues. 28, 29 Women with more education however show greater desire for independence and an opportunity to perf...
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