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Example research essay topic: Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide - 1,498 words

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... locked into the melted minerals. If volcanic rocks erupt on the earth's crust, such as the Andean volcanoes, then magma can interact with carbonate rocks such as chalk as it travels up through the mantle or lower crust, picking up carbon dioxide on the way. In subduction zones, where the ocean floor goes down into the mantle some carbonate rocks do get taken down and melted, recycling their carbon dioxide content, but this is a minor source compared with the mantle. Carbon is quite common deep in the earth, found either as the element itself (graphite or diamond under very high pressures), or as carbon dioxide.

None of the common minerals in magmatic rock contains carbon, so when magma cools and solidifies carbon is one of the 'left-over' elements. If there is enough oxygen around, then it will combine to form carbon dioxide. Where does the carbon dioxide that's found in volcanic lavas come from? The carbon dioxide comes from the deep mantle where it is dissolved in the rocks that melt to form the magma (magma = any molten rock beneath the surface) which eventually reach the surface as lava. As the magma ascends the pressure acting on it decreases and eventually the various gases become saturated and ex solve (the opposite of dissolve) into gas bubbles.

The first to ex solve is carbon dioxide (the least soluble), then later (nearer the surface) water vapour and sulphur dioxide come out. It is the expansion and joining up of the gas bubbles which tears the magma up into lumps or clots which form the pumice or scoria in explosive eruptions. Carbon is quite a common element deep in the earth, either as the element (graphite, or under very high pressures, diamond) or in carbon dioxide contained in magmas or rocks. None of the common minerals in magmatic (igneous) rocks contain carbon, so when the magma cools down and solidifies, carbon is one of the 'left over' elements.

If there is enough oxygen around, it will combine with the carbon to form carbon dioxide. Is there any evidence of earthquake or volcanic activity in the past in the polar regions? There are at least 6 volcanoes in Antarctica - Mount Bird, Coulman Island, Mount Discovery, Mount Erebus, Mount Harcourt and Mount Terror. There aren't volcanoes as such in the Arctic because there is no land mass there.

There may well be volcanoes under the ice at the bottom of the ocean, but we don't tend to call things volcanoes until we can see them! The largest islands, in the western region, form volcanic island arcs that rise from the broad continental shelf along the eastern edge of the Eurasian Plate. They include Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea, and New Zealand. The oceanic islands, collectively called Oceania, are the tops of mountains built up from the ocean basin by extruding molten rock. The Pacific Ocean contains more than 30, 000 islands of this type; their total land area, however, amounts to only one-quarter of one per cent of the surface area of the ocean. The mountains that remain submerged are called seamounts.

In many areas, particularly the South Pacific, the land features above the sea surface are accretions of coral reef. Along the eastern edge of the Pacific, the continental shelf is narrow and steep, with few island areas. The major groups are the Galapagos at the equator. Which rise from the Nazca Plate, the Aleutians in the north, which are part of the North American continental shelf.

The islands of Hawaii, which rise some 5, 550 m (more than 18, 000 ft) from the sea floor of the central Pacific, reaching in Mauna Kea a height of 4, 205 m (13, 796 ft) above sea level. Edinburgh Castle, historically the principal royal fortress of Scotland, perched on Castle Rock, a massive volcanic rock that towers dramatically over the city. Overlooking the North Sea, the rock has long occupied a key strategic position on the Firth of Forth and has consequently been fortified from earliest times. St Margaret's Chapel, built in the 12 th century during the reign of David I in memory of Margaret, queen of Malcolm III, is almost certainly the oldest structure on the rock. Because of continuous remodelling and alteration of the fortifications on the rock over the centuries, little remains of the medieval fortifications. The picturesque agglomeration of battlements, towers, prisons, and palaces dates from virtually every stage of Scottish history.

The finest buildings date principally from the reign of James IV; the Great Hall, with a superb hammer-beam roof, is perhaps the most significant. James IV was also responsible for improvements made to the 15 th-century Royal Palace of James I, situated on Crown Square, within the Castle, and it was in a room here that James VI (James I of England) was born to Mary, Queen of Scots in 1566. Today, the castle, which is open to visitors, is the scene of an annual floodlit tattoo Vesuvius (Italian, Vesuvius, from Oscan word few, smoke), volcano in southern Italy, near the shore of the Bay of Naples and the city of Naples. It is the only active volcano on the European mainland. A solitary mountain rising from the plain of Campania, it has a base about 48 km (30 mi) in circumference and is surmounted by two summits, of which the higher is the cone known as Vesuvius proper. On August 24, AD 79, a great eruption of Vesuvius began; the top of the mountain was blown off by an explosion, and the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stable were overwhelmed by a rain of ashes and mud.

About 2, 000 people were killed. No lava was ejected in this or any subsequent eruption until 1066. An eruption in 1631 destroyed five towns and caused the deaths of more than 3, 000 people. In 1794 a violent outbreak destroyed the town of Torre del Greco. Following numerous smaller outbreaks, a violent eruption took place in April 1906, lasting ten days and causing great destruction and the loss of 2, 000 lives. Since then smaller outbreaks have occurred in 1913, 1926, 1929, and 1944.

The height of Vesuvius is 1, 277 m (4, 190 ft), while that of Monte Somma, the lesser summit, is 1, 132 m (3, 713 ft). The volcano's slopes are covered with vineyards and orchards. Higher up, oak and chestnut grow. A funicular railway has been constructed from the base of the cinder cone to the summit close to the edge of the crater, and an observatory is maintained near the crater Mauna Kea (White Mountain), inactive volcano, Hawaii, northern Hawaii Island. Mauna Kea is the highest peak in the state and its slopes are generally snow-covered in winter.

The volcano rises about 5, 486 m (18, 000 ft) from the ocean floor to the surface and continues up to a height of about 4, 205 m (13, 796 ft) above sea level, making its overall height from its base on the ocean floor to its summit about 9, 754 m (32, 000 ft), the greatest such continuous elevation in the world. The remote location, clear air, and high altitude make the mountain's summit an ideal location for astronomical observing; the Mauna Kea Observatory there is the home of some of the world's finest telescopes Mauna Loa, active volcano, on Hawaii Island, one of the world's largest volcanoes. It rises from a desolate landscape of old lava flows to a high point of 4, 169 m (13, 677 ft) above sea level in the summit caldera (enlarged crater) of Mokuaweoweo. Lava from Mauna Loa covers about 50 per cent of Hawaii Island, including parts of Kilauea, a crater on the mountain's east flank. Since the early 19 th century, Mauna Loa has exuded lava about once every four years The 1983 eruption of the Kilauea crater spilled molten, basaltic lava down the flanks of Mauna Loa volcano on Hawaii Island, Hawaii. Hawaiian volcanoes are examples of broad shield volcanoes, which form from lava eruptions.

Fuji is a celebrated dormant volcano of Japan in southern Honshu near Tokyo. Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan, rises as a cone to a height of 3, 776 above sea level with the apex broken by a cone-shaped crater 610 m in diameter. The southern slopes extend to the shore of Suruga Bay, and the isolated peak can be seen from many of the outlying prefectures. The mountain is part of Fuji-Hakone-In National Park, the most popular holiday area in Japan. According to legend, Fuji arose from the plain during a single night in 286 BC.

Geologically the mountain is much older. The most recent recorded eruption of Fuji lasted from November 24, 1707, until January 22, 1708. Certain religious sects regard the mountain as a sacred place. Fuji is visited annually by thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the country, and numerous shrines and temples are on its slopes. Bibliography:


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