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Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is much more prevalent in todays society compared to previous generations. More and more people are being diagnosed at an alarming rate. To my surprise, I learned this disorder does not only affect children. There are many adults who suffer from it also. ADHD characteristics are neuro-biologically based, and they often change as the individual gets older. One does not out-grow ADHD even though the behaviors, or symptoms may not be exhibited in the same manner or with the same intensity.
After learning this fact, I thought it would be very interesting to see how this disorder affects both children and college students. Therefore, I choose one journal article which relates ADHD to children, and the other which deals with the effects of ADHD on college students. The first journal article I researched, An Intervention Approach for Children with Teacher and Parent Identified Attentional Difficulties, explained that inattention, impulsivity, destructibility, and restlessness are all signs of a child with an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. There are three subtypes of ADHD which have been defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as: predominantly inattentive, predominately hyperactive impulsive, and combined (Semrud-Clekeman, Nielsen, Clinton, Sylvester, Parle, and Connor, 1999). Usually children who exhibit these subtypes have difficulty completing assignments, displaying high qualities of work, and maintaining good behaviors.
Children with the hyperactivity-impulsivity subtype do not display significant attentional problems, though they are identified as young as pre-schoolers. However, symptoms of inattention dont typically emerge until the later ages, which must be why the predominately inattentive and combined subtypes of ADHD have been found in older school-age children. These children who have been identified as having ADHD, show an inability to use effective problem solving over a period of time. When researchers looked at their brain structures, they found that the frontal-striatal regions are involved with the childs ability to inhibit, focus, and shift attention. Researchers have formed interventions involving the behavioral or cognitive management of children with ADHD. Attention-training strategies, classroom-based contingency systems, home-school contingencies, and peer-mediated contingencies are examples of these interventions.
In an effort to measure students with ADHD, in addition to medication and intervention strategies, researchers conducted two types of tests. The first test, the visual attention task, required the child to scan fourteen rows of ds, each d had one to three marks around it. The child was instructed to select the ds with two marks around them. The children were also told to move down to the next row every twenty seconds. The score is calculated by subtracting the errors from the total amount correct. It was suggested that this task assesses the capacity for sustained attention as well as accurate visual scanning and inhibition of rapid responses (Semrud-Clekeman, Nielsen, Clinton, Sylvester, Parle, and Connor, 1999, p. 585).
The second test, the auditory attention task, required the child to listen to random letters and numbers. Afterwards, they were asked to remember how many letters or numbers they heard. The child must keep in mind the letters and numbers they heard for each stimulus at the same time. The test starts out with four stimuli and finishes with twelve. This task has been hypothesized to be a measure of auditory divided attention as well as sustained attention (Semrud-Clekeman, Nielsen, Clinton, Sylvester, Parle, and Connor, 1999, p. 585). The results of this study confirmed that children with ADHD who had help through the intervention programs showed an increase in their performance on visual and auditory attention tasks, while the other children without the help of intervention programs did not show any improvement.
These children most likely represent a continuum of attention and activity / impulsivity problems and may describe the population of children with significant attention problems who are infrequently referred for an assessment beyond the pediatrician (Semrud-Clekeman, Nielsen, Clinton, Sylvester, Parle, and Connor, 1999, p. 587). It seems very probable that children with attention and work completion difficulties without significant behavioral and learning problems often go unaided in classrooms today. The second journal article I selected is titled Psychological Functioning Differences Among College Students With Confirmed ADHD, ADHD by Self-Report Only, and Without ADHD. In an attempt to understand attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder, professor Lee A. Rosen, psychologist Cori Ann Ramirez, and doctoral student Tracy L. Richards have researched the effects this disorder has had on college students.
College students were researched based on three categories: those with confirmed ADHD, those with self-reported, and students without ADHD. The team of researchers had difficulty in diagnosing students with ADHD because of three factors: establishing a childhood history of ADHD, conducting careful differential diagnoses, and assessing for comorbid diagnoses (Ramirez, Richards & Rosen, 1999, p. 299) Researchers also found that the abuse of drugs and / or alcohol, as well as various other diagnoses are usually associated with ADHD. As I learned from the first research article, symptoms of this disorder include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. When researchers noted the symptoms in college students, they found many of these students exhibiting restlessness, impulsivity, distraction, poor performance in academic settings that require sustained attention and behavior regulation. To measure students for ADHD, researchers used several tests: the Brief Symptom Screening Form (BSSF), a self- report measure of ADHD, a Background Questionnaire, which involves information of ethnicity and medical history, and the ADHD Behavior Checklist for Adults was used to measure the symptoms of ADHD over the past six months of the persons life as well as their childhood. The other tests used were the Wonder Utah Scale (WURS), which helped to measure an adults assessment of their own childhood, the Symptom Checklist- 90 -R (SCL- 90 -R), that consists of ninety items to assess psychological symptoms of psychiatric and medical patients, and the last analysis used was The Conduct Disorder Scale, which instructed students to admit to any delinquent activities they took part in within the past twelve months.
After researchers measured the scores from the aforementioned tests, they found that ADHD students and self-reported ADHD students scored very similar. Although the results between the two groups showed similarities, there were many problems in assessing the scores. Self-reported students and their parents did not agree on their condition. The article states, that parental recall of childhood behavior is more valid than patient recall because often times students may forget, exaggerate, or underestimate their own childhood behavior (Ramirez, Richards & Rosen, 1999, p. 304) Also, students of the self-reports could have been lying when answering the questionnaires. As one can see, this study may not be the most accurate way to determine if someone truly does have ADHD. Overall, researchers agree that attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder is a common issue amongst college students, especially those who do not know why they are experiencing certain inabilities.
Researchers feel that without proper measurements, many students who suffer from ADHD will not receive the appropriate assistance deemed necessary, and they will continue to have attentional problems that will interfere with their academic performance. The popular media article found in U. S. News and World Report, Taking a Picture of a Mind Gone Awhirl, focuses on a new imaging method used to diagnose ADHD. It is said to be the first definitive test for ADHD.
The new diagnostic exam, developed by psychiatrists at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Mass. , uses an infrared tracking device to measure difficult-to-detect movements of children as they attempt a tough but boring attention test, pressing the space bar each time a particular kind of star appears for a brief moment somewhere on the computer screen (Schrof Fischer, 2000). Researchers began a study on eleven boys who had previously been diagnosed with ADHD and six boys who do not have this disorder. If the boys pressed the space bar too quickly, it demonstrated how impulsive they were. If they did not notice one of the stars on the screen, it determined how much their attention wandered.
Using this rigorous screening, only six of the eleven boys were confirmed to fit a strict definition of ADHD (Schrof Fischer, 2000). This in turn means that five of the boys did not fit the strict definition of ADHD. Therefore they must have been misdiagnosed at some point. The article also discusses a part of the brain called the putamen and how it is different in an ADHD child. It seems as if this new test could be a much better way of diagnosing someone with ADHD compared to the methods used in the two journal articles. I feel the research presented in the journal articles does support the report in the popular media article by illustrating that there is continuous research taking place that just seems to be getting better as time goes by.
All three articles also helped confirm my awareness of the fact that ADHD is presently such a widespread problem. The articles also helped me to realize how many individuals are misdiagnosed. All types of disorders, from anxiety to manic-depression to conduct disorders, are now mistaken for ADHD, and everyone suffers for that diagnostic sloppiness (Schrof Fischer, 2000). It comes as a relief to know that with modern technology, comes more accurate ways a determining whether an individual is suffering from ADHD. If this new test is confirmed to be reliable, it could help correct both the overuse of Ritalin and the under treatment of kids whose ADHD is missed by the naked eye (Schrof Fischer, 2000). All in all, Ive learned a great deal about attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and are glad to now know that there is hope for our future generation to be prepared with more improved methods to accurately diagnose people with ADHD.
Bibliography Bibliography Clinton, A. , Connor, R. , Nielsen, K. , Parle, N. , Semrud- Clekeman, M. , Sylvester, L. (1999). An intervention approach for children with teacher- and parent- identified attentional difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32 (6), 581 - 590. Ramirez, C. A. , Richards, T. L. , Rosen, L.
A. (1999). Psychological functioning differences among college students with confirmed ADHD, ADHD by self-report only, and without ADHD. Journal of College Student Development, 40 (3), 299 - 304. Schrof Fischer, J. (2000, April 10).
Taking a picture of a mind gone awhirl. U. S. News and World Report, 128, 48.
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Research essay sample on Thorough Analysis Of Attention Deficit Disorder
