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... he students is adjusted to their conceptual and linguistic level, using many features of "mothers" to facilitate language comprehension and acquisition on the part of the students. Fifth, concentrated exposure to language is important to promote language development. Sixth, the two languages are kept distinct and never mixed during instruction (Lindholm. 1992).
Bilingual development may facilitate cognitive functioning if the duo language development is sustained over a long period of time so that the child attains a high level of proficiency in the two languages. High levels of language proficiency require the development of both communicative and academic language skills in both languages. Skills and knowledge learned in one language are accessible in another language proficiency to exhibit the knowledge (Lindholm, 1992), Genes (1994) stated that research results from evaluations of alternative forms of a second language immersion programs suggest at least three lessons of general relevance for second language instruction Instructional approaches that integrate content and language are likely to be more effective than approaches in which language is taught in isolation 2) The use of instructional strategies and academic tasks that encourage active discourse among learners and between learners and teachers is likely to be especially beneficial for second language learning. 3) Language development should be systematically integrated with academic development in order to maximize language learning. Liberty and Gonzalez (1998) evaluated two elementary schools, Metz and Sanchez. This is an evaluation of the third year of a five-year comprehensive Bilingual Education grant funded by Title VII. The grant requires dual language (two-way) instruction on English and a second language, in this case Spanish.
Instruction continues in both languages throughout the duration of the program. The students are expected to develop subject matter skills and to meet grade promotion requirements. A large percentage of students at both schools are limited English proficient (LEP). Evaluation data were collected from many sources including the district mainframe files, which provide demographics, LEP status, academic achievement and literacy Information. The Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (T AAS) showed that "LEP students at Sanchez Elementary School passed at a higher rate than non-LEP students on 4 th grade writing and 5 th grade reading. LEP students at Metz Elementary School outperformed non-LEP students on 3 rd and 5 th grade mathematics, and passed at the same rate on 5 th grade reading" (p. 2).
The Iowa Test of Basic Skills showed that "at Metz, non-LEP students scored considerably higher than LEP students on both the 3 rd grade reading and mathematics tests and the 5 th grade reading test; however, LEP students as a group did better on the 5 th grade mathematics test. At Sanchez, non-LEP students as a group outperformed LEP students on 3 rd grade reading and mathematics" (p. 3). On Language Assessment Scales (LAS-O), Sanchez Elementary School scores were higher for spring 1998 than fall 1997 scores. Students tested in English grades, 2, 3, and 4, on average scored at the Fluent Speaker of English level (Levels 4 and 5). Students tested in Spanish in grades 2, 3, and 5 on averaged scored at the Limited Speaker of Spanish level (Level 2). At Metz Elementary School the LAS-O scores were higher in spring 1998 than fall 1997.
Students tested in English in grades I, 2, 3 and 4 on the average scored at the Fluent Speaker of English level (Leve 14). Students tested in Spanish in grades 1, 3, 4, and 5 on average scored at the Non- Speaker of Spanish level (Level 1) and students tested in grade 2 scored at the Limited Speaker of Spanish level (Level 2). The original cohort (1995 - 96) of PK- 3 students totaled 596 in the two schools. In the 1997 - 98 school year, 459 (77 %) of the original cohort were still in the program. It is projected that 60 % - 65 % of the original cohort will remain in the program in the final two years of the grant (Liberty & Gonzalez, 1998).
Cazabon, Nicoladis, and Lambert examined students' progress toward bilingualism in the Amigos two-way immersion program. Amigos is a two-way immersion program instituted in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1986. The students in this program typically start in kinder and continue the program through 6 th grade. They wanted to gain insight into the attitudes of becoming bilingual and to see if the students were achieving academically in two languages. They examined the Amigos students's cores on a standardized achievement tests of reading and math in English and Spanish across a 5 to 6 year period. Concerning their attitudes, most students enjoyed learning Spanish and English in the program.
The standardized test for English was the CAT (California Achievement Test). The standardized test for Spanish was SABE (Spanish Achievement in Bilingual Education). "The English-Amigos scored as well as or better than the English control group on the CAT. The Spanish-Amigos scored no differently from the English control group in reading on the CA T and scored significantly higher than the English control group in English-language math in Grades 4 through 6 " (Cazabon, Nicoladis & Lambert), These results suggest that both groups Amigos have achieved a high degree of English proficiency with regard to their academic work "Spanish achievement reveals that the Spanish -Amigos scored as well as or better than the Spanish control group in reading and math at all grades. The English -Amigos scored significantly lower in reading than the Spanish control group in Grades 4 to 6 and as well as or better than the Spanish control group in math at all grades" (Cazabon).
Nicoladis & Lambert). In sum, these results suggest that the Spanish-Amigos have maintained a high degree of Spanish proficiency with regard to their academic work. The English-Amigos have attained some degree of Spanish proficiency, as evidenced by their scores on the word problems of the SABE math test. Shin and Krashen (1996) investigated how bilingual education is perceived by teachers They were specifically interested in teachers' understanding and attitudes toward the theoretical foundation of bilingual education, and how these attitudes compared to support for participation in bilingual programs.
The sample consisted of 794 kinder through twelve public school teachers from six school districts in central California. The results show that there is strong acceptance for the rationale underlying bilingual education. "The teachers agreed that developing literacy in the first language facilitated the development of reading and writing in English, and that subject matter instruction in the first language helps the child learn subject matter better in English" (p. 51). Teachers also accepted the rationale that advanced first language development led to practical advantages, superior cognitive development, and agreed that maintaining the first culture of the child was a good idea. Jones, (1994) addressed student's perceptions of bi-literacy in a two-way bilingual classroom. He believes that "attitudes toward language are an integral part of learning a second language and therefore should be an integral part of planning and teaching for second language learning" (p. 81). Students must be understood in terms of attitude as well, as cognitive and linguistic processes in order to maximize bi-literacy in any and all bilingual classrooms.
Results indicated that even in a two-way program where both languages were equally valued, Spanish and English speakers alike perceived English to be more legitimate school language. "English was used by all students to describe their writing even when children were Spanish dominant and limited in their ability to use English" (p. 84). Spanish speakers were anxious to use English when being interviewed by a bilingual Hispanic interviewer. Although number of students interviewed in this study was small, the findings about attitude and perception caused school personnel to examine their assumptions about their children's readiness to develop both languages. McCollum (1993) found that in a middle school two-way immersion program, Spanish background students used primarily English at school. She argues that among other factors, the students' perceived English, not Spanish, as the "language of power" and reacted accordingly (cited in Christian, 1996, p. 74). Gersten and Woodward (1995) described a longitudinal evaluation of two approaches to the education of language-minority students, transitional bilingual education and a new approach, bilingual immersion.
This evaluation took place in El Paso, Texas. Academic instruction is taught in the primary language of the student. The primary language will be taught until the student demonstrates an adequate grasp of English. This will enable them to succeed in classes with English-language academic instruction, and exhibit competence in academic areas in their native language. Increased mastery of concepts in mathematics, social studies, and other content areas is one goal of bilingual education, since they are taught in Spanish, the language that students understand the best.
Contemporary advocates of the immersion approach propose a method that integrates second-language instruction with content-area materials. This approach is sometimes called bilingual immersion. This bilingual immersion approach retains the predominant focus on English-language instruction from the immersion model. It changes it with a substantive, 4 -year Spanish-language program so that students maintain their facility with their native language, The use of the English language at both conversational and conceptual levels is a cornerstone in the evolution of bilingual immersion. Students were included in the sample who "a) were classified as exhibiting virtually no knowledge of English on beginning first grade b) participated for at least four years in one of the districts two programs for language-minority students, and c) took the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) in the areas of language, reading, mathematics, and vocabulary" (Gersten & Woodward, 1995, p. 230). Ten schools were involved, five implemented bilingual immersion and five implemented transitional bilingual education.
Longitudinal analyses were III for the bilingual immersion sample and 117 for the transitional bilingual education sample. Data were collected between 1985 and 1991. The Longitudinal evaluation generally produced a lack of significant differences in achievement test scores by the seventh grade in all areas but reading, where the effect was small. The longitudinal comparisons of seventh-grade achievement indicate that bilingual immersion and transitional bilingual education are equally viable options (Gersten & Woodward, 1995) Collier (1995) conducted research on nonnative-English speaking students in five urban Districts. The results show that the greatest educational gains are achieved by students who were in two-way programs (cited in Christian, 1996). "While the differences are not so great in the early years, by secondary school, the effects are clear" (Christian, 1996, p. 72).
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Research essay sample on Language Minority Students Bilingual Education
