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In this essay, I will discuss the history, origins, and other aspects of Futhark, the runic alphabet. I will focus on information and theories based on Scandinavian script, and use the Stentoften stone as an example of these ancient inscriptions. The Latin alphabet was introduced into Scandinavia about the year 1000. Before that the only method of recording was the runic script. These mysterious symbols, incised on stone, were believed to have been created by Odin (Chat, 1987, p. 148). Runes are associated with wisdom and well-being, words and deeds, and the Gods and Magical powers.
They are both practical and mystical (Barrett, 1995, p. 12). They have shown up over a period extending from 200 BC to the present as historical and archaeological items, in an area spreading well past the Baltic to the Mediterranean (King, 2002, p. 2). Their origins are unclear, but there are many theories as to how these symbols became, which will be discussed later. Even the origin of the word Rune is unclear, but many different interpretations have been put forward, most being magically based. Peter Taylor, in a book by John Matthews (1992, p. 34) states that the word Rune, which occurs in both Germanic and Celtic languages, means a Mystery or Holy secret that is whispered. Each rune has a name and meaning, and all 24 runes make up the runic alphabet, said to be the most developed magical alphabet.
Nigel Pennick (1992, p. 9) argues that technically, runic is not actually an alphabet, as this implies a row of characters beginning with alpha and beta, and so on. Unlike most letter systems, the first at (group) of runes begin with the letters F, U, (now replaced by the Latin Th), A, R, K. Runic alphabets are therefore known as the Futhark. As with any script, the original developed over a period of time, resulting in three main variants of futhark.
The oldest known to scholars is the Common Germanic Futhark, which consists of twenty-four symbols (King, 2002, p. 4). Its letters were divided into three main groups of eight symbols, each group called an attic. Each attic was attributed to a deity, Freyja, Heimdall and Taiwan. This was in use from its beginnings to the 9 th century, until a drastic modification took place to the sounds and their symbols, and their number was reduced from twenty-four to sixteen (Chat, 1987, p. 148).
As some of the symbols had been dropped, the order of them changed slightly, so this new runic alphabet was called Futhark (Fig. 2). To accommodate the range of sounds in the Scandinavian language, singular runes took on a double or single duty, as separate runes from the original futhark which had the same or similar sound values were combined or dropped. Within the same century as the decrease of the futhark, the Anglo-Saxon runic script, called Futhark (Fig. 3), increased to twenty-eight then later to thirty-three symbols. The additional letters were needed to represent sounds that occurred in Old English but did not occur in the continental tongue (Cooper, 1987, p. 11). Through these changes the runes kept their angularity, as they were only carved into metal, wood or stone, never written on parchment. The runes were used unchanged for another 400 years until the spread of Christianity in around 1000 AD.
Pagan gods were openly worshipped until the 12 th century, and there is proof that runes were used by Pagans until the 17 th century. Christians also used runes, calling on Christ and his Saints, which most researchers feel was another attempt by the Christians to christianity heathen commodities. Yves Kodratoff (1998) asserts, runes were created within one particular religious context, and Christianity has certainly proved since its incapacity to retain the magical aspects of life. Certain aspects of rune lore have been continued to present day, the Elder Futhark being used mainly for magical purposes.
Apart from run ologists, occultist today still study stones bearing ancient runic inscriptions, believing that their scripts contain deep magical knowledge. One of these stones thought to contain magical powers is the Stentoften Stone. This stone was crafted in Blekinge, Southeast Sweden in the middle of the 7 th century, has one of the longest Old Futhark inscriptions in the world. The stone still resides in its native Blekinge, but in 1864, was moved to the Church of St. Nicolai in Slvesborg in an attempt to neutralise its alleged magical powers. Some of the most remarkable stones bearing runic inscriptions originated from this area, some of the oldest being the Bjrketorp, Flegehall, Gummarp, Italy, Slvesborg and Turn stones.
All of these stones are thought to be closely associated with the Semitic Fertility Cult; Semitic being the language in which, some believe, all ancient inscriptions are written. These stones from Blekinge are said to cite known cult-based erotic texts, many of which included Holy depictions of the act of making love (Huge, 2002). Yves Kodratoff, in a 1998 interpretation, believes that contrary to his own interpretations, practicing magic has become synonymous with sexual perversion. So, depending on the individual interpreters beliefs and morals, the inscriptions could be seen as either sexual expressions or magical scripts. Due to this, the final interpretation and translation can vary widely for each interpreter.
Another cause for great difference could be how the interpreter breaks up the inscription into individual words. This is sometimes impossible, as on some stones, including the Stentoften stone, it is one continuous script with no spaces between words. In addition to this, the ancient script has no set direction as it does in its younger form, so can read from left to right, or from right to left. A translation of the Stentoften stone inscription from read Svensson's The Stentoften Stone (1998), is as follows: The delight of the father rises and strikes. The proud delight declines and strikes. Rejoice!
And the child swells highly. Burn (of desire)! And the child swells from its devastatingly ruining flight. The hand of our eradication from the height of El reaches the innermost part of the pelvis of your de. The complete nudity seeks his flight and El, the lover, moistens the child with water and mud of the pudenda. In a translation of the first four lines of the same inscription by Moltke (cited by Yves Kodratoff, 1998) The new peasant / son , The new guest Gave a good year to Half, Herself now A treasure.
In comparing the breakdown of the script, we can see why there would be a difference in these two translations. A transliterated version by read Svensson (1998) of the first four lines of inscription: Night Ab or u mka Night ge stA u mka HAu wol A fk gamma HarA w ola fk m Age And snu he Moltke's version of the first four lines of the Stentoften inscription (cited by Yves Kodratoff, 1998): Nihua border Nihua gesture HauwolafR gaf j HariwolafR (m) au s ne h (I) e These interpreters have interpreted the runes and broken the script down differently. Missing or additional letters from the words formed by the symbols greatly change the outcome of the translation. This makes it very difficult, but not impossible, to decipher the true initial meaning and function of the inscription of the Stentoften stone. Like so many other inscriptions, they have remained an enigma to all serious researchers. Another elusive conclusion is the origin of the runes.
One idea which I mentioned briefly is that the language in which all ancient inscriptions were written was Semitic. The Semitic language was brought to Scandinavia by people of the Mediterranean Sea area, namely the Cretans who were Semitic, travelling north on trading tours. Kjell Aartun argues that it was during this migration period that many Semitic-speaking people came to Scandinavia. In the North, the Asian people spread so much that their language was the common language in all these countries (cited by Arild Huge, 2002). These Semitic runes were not inspired by Greek or Latin alphabets, but instead the opposite, being the basic platform by which Greek and Latin alphabets later developed (Arild Huge, 2002). Kjell Aartun maintains that Scandinavian runes are identical with runes which were used in Semitic language areas such as Trojan Asia Minor and Canaan (Palestine) as far back in history as 2000 BC (cited by Arild Huge, 2002).
Another theory is that Futhark may have been adapted from the Greek or Etruscan alphabet, as similarities are shared between these scripts. Even though most early runic inscriptions are from the 3 rd century AD, its origins may lie much deeper in the pre-history of Northern Europe. The earliest futhark inscriptions do not have a set writing direction, which was a feature of very archaic Greek or Etruscan alphabets before the 3 rd century BC (Lo, 1997). Other theories can be taken from the construction of the linguistics and regional findings. However, the most popular idea of how the Runic script came into being is that of the Norse god Odin, and his self-sacrifice in Yggdrasil the World tree (Fig. 6), as told in a passage from the Scandinavian poem Html (cited by David. M Wilson, 1989, p. 27): I know that I hung on the windswept tree for nine whole nights pierced by the spear, given to Odin, myself given to myself on that tree whose roots no man knows.
They refresh me neither with bread nor with drink from the horn. I peer down, I learn runes, howling I learnt them, and then fell back. There is no proof that the runic script was created for magical or religious purposes, and may have been created purely for everyday communication and documentation. But, most modern Pagans believe that the magical purposes of the runes were not adapted incidentally, but born with the inscriptions as an important part of them, and it is because of this magic that they are still in use today. Reference List Barrett, David, V. (1995). Runes.
London: Dorling Kindersley. Chat, Yves. (1987). The Vikings: Lord of the Seas. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Cooper, Jason, D. (1987).
Using the Runes. London: Thorsons. Huge, Arild. (2002). The History of the Runes. King, Bernard. (2002). Way of the Runes.
London: Thorsons. Lo, Lawrence. (1997). Ancient Scripts: Futhark. Available: web Pennick, Nigel. (1992).
Rune Magick: The History and Practice of Ancient Runic Traditions. London: Thorsons. Matthews, John. (1992). The World Atlas of Divination. London: Headline Book Publishing. Svensson, read. (1998).
The Stentoften Stone. Available: web Svensson, read. (1998). Stentoften Inscription. Available: web Thompson, Edge. (1984). Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic.
Maine: Samuel Weiser. Wilson, David, M. (1989). The Vikings and their Origins. London: Thames and Hudson.
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