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Example research essay topic: United States Of America Santa Fe - 5,267 words

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/> [The following is an earlier version of the essay published under the title "Begetting the Mexican American" in Seeds of Struggle, Harvest of Fair, LPD Press, c. 1998, pp. 345 - 72. Permission from Publisher and my own as author to use for educational purposes. ] PADRE ANTONIO JOSE MARTINEZ: BROKER FOR NON VIOLENT CONQUEST AND THE TAOS UPRISING OF 1847 by Rev. Juan Romero INTRODUCTION The year 1998 will mark the fourth centennial of the founding in northern New Mexico of the second oldest European settlement in what is now the United States. This importance of this anniversary is highlighted because of its close proximity to two other significant events: the 150 th anniversary of the 1846 American occupation of New Mexico, and the coming of the new millennium which is upon us. Antonio Jos Martinez, born in Abiquiu, New Mexico when it was still a Spanish province, was about seventeen years old when Padre Miguel Hidalgo in 1810 uttered his cry for independence from Spain. By the time independence was realized in 1821, Martinez had become a young widower and was studying for the priesthood in the Durango seminary.

The influence of Padre Hidalgo upon Padre Martinez was shown by a sermon the New Mexican priest preached at the cathedral in Santa Fe. This took place in 1832, eleven years after Mexican Independence and sixteen years before the American occupation of New Mexico. Padre Martinez praised Padre Hidalgo for his role in the independence of the Mexican people. Martinez compared Hidalgo to the Macabees of the Old Testament who unsuccessfully fought so valiantly against their Greek conquerors in order to keep their language, religion, and cultural identity. Padre Martinez grew up in Taos, and served as its priest for forty-two years. He witnessed many changes culminated in the transitions brought by Mexican American War, specifically the Taos Rebellion of 1847.

As mediator during the uprising, Padre Martinez begot a new people by bridging Mexican-American divergence in language, culture, religion, politics, and way of life. Although he was not one of the principal architects of the Taos Rebellion, as his enemies alleged, Martinez was certainly a key actor in those events surrounding the battles. Padre Martinez was, in fact, much more a peacemaker and reconciler than warmonger. With his priestly prestige and political savvy, he was willing and able to broker the various interests, as well as bridge the tensions and conflicts inherent in a major socio-political transformation which was to have profound cultural and economic ramifications. The life of Padre Antonio Jos Martinez, Cura de Taos, may serve as a thread weaving together various important elements of the fabric of New Mexico's rich history. It may also offer insight into aspects of its future and that of Hispanics in the Catholic Church within this country.

Padre Martinez was a witness to the demographic shifts which were taking place in the Santa Fe and Taos area as a result of Mexican independence and the more liberal border policy of the Mexican government. This was in contrast to the more strict immigration policy which the Spanish government had observed. Padre Martinez took over as the priest of Taos in 1826, the very year that sixteen year old Kit Carson came to town. By 1829, Virginia born Charles Bent made his home in Taos and became a wealthy man through trapping and trading buffalo and beaver fur.

He established Bent's Fort along the Arkansas River, on the American side of the border with Mexico, near what is today the town of La Junta in southern Colorado. Charles Bent is a significant person in New Mexican history because he was to become the territory's first governor under United States' rule. Within four months he was to be the first and most prestigious victim of the Mexican American War as it impacted upon New Mexico in the Taos Rebellion of 1847. Padre Martinez was of the opinion that the presence and commerce of the foreigner was often prejudicial to the well being of the native American and New Mexican settler. Since 1832 he used to complain that Anglo's, "besides useful articles, " were selling alcohol to the Indians along these forts, such as Bents Fort, erected on the Arkansas River. He claimed that this "forbidden article has extremely demoralized the [Indian] nations. " Furthermore, the liquor contributed to their incursions and stealing horses, and "several...

among our own people... have taken the choice of becoming horse thieves themselves... " Mexican fear of foreign immigrants into their northern territory was becoming severe by the spring of 1843. In November of that year, Padre Martinez wrote to President Santa Ana and publicly criticized foreign encroachment into Mexican territory. He complained to the President about the lack of tact on the part of the Mexican governors in having granted to the strangers of North America, such as Bent and others, permission to build forts along the Napeiste [Arkansas] and Chat rivers with the object of establishing in said forts commerce with the said tribes. Padre Martinez maintained that the immigrant strangers were themselves the cause of Indian incursions because they furnished them with arms and liquor.

Martinez unfavorably compared the policies of the Mexican government to some of those of the Spanish government. He complained to Santa Ana that at least under Spanish rule it was never permitted to furnish Indians with arms and liquor for fear that los estrange ros" (American foreigners) might pervert the Indians and encourage them to revolt. As a faithful churchman, as well as Mexican patriot, Padre Martinez also advised his ecclesiastical superior Bishop Antonio Zubira of his opinions in regards to the American take-over of New Mexico which he knew was inevitable. In his letter to Bishop Zubira, three years before the occupation of Santa Fe, Martinez stated that he was constantly observing the movements of the Americans who were approaching rapidly. He saw that their principal aim was the annexation of the country to the United States of America, and he lamented that the Mexican authorities were very slow in taking the necessary steps to stop this. He could see that the Americans would finally take this land which seemed left without resources to stop the intruders.

Padre Martinez furthermore decried that the native New Mexican people were in fact abandoned by their own Mexican national government, and he predicted that the consequence of such negligence on the part of his government would be the annexation of his country to the United States of America. As I am observing what is going on in this part of the country, I will venture to predict that sooner or later this Department will become a portion of our neighbor Republic of America. There, every religion is tolerated according to its constitution. What inclines me to believe that the time of this inevitable change is not far off, is the clear anxiety shown by the Americans to effect the annexation, and the dangerous negligence of our Government... As I have said, this time is quickly approaching, and our government is not taking steps to overcome this intrusion. I am prepared, as I always have been, to protest in the adoration which I owe Our Lord Jesus Christ, and to His Holy doctrine, to His moral [code], and His dogmas.

I am ready with my humble knowledge and the confidence of my resolution, for which I thank God, to face and preach against the great diversity of sects which this government will introduce into this country, and so maintain myself in the grace of God and obedience of His Church... It is the general talk here that the American government will soon take control of this Department... Although Padre Martinez had warned Durango's Bishop Zubira of the coming of the Americans with their Protestantizing influence, Martinez nevertheless eventually came to favor the American occupation before it actually took place. BENT'S FORT In an 1819 treaty between Spain and the United States, two years before Mexican independence, both countries formally recognized that Spain's northernmost border extended to the Arkansas River. Under Spanish rule, the border had been virtually closed to Americans of the United States and to Canadians. However, for trade purposes, the Mexican government pursued the policy of a more open border with the United States.

The border of which we speak was at Bent's Fort along the Arkansas River in what is now southern Colorado. The Arkansas River, running southeasterly between Pikes Peak on the east and the Continental Divide on the west, has its source deep within the spine of the Colorado Rockies. It was along this Arkansas River, called Ro Napiste by the Spanish, that in 1829 Charles and William Bent built their fort on the ruins of a previously founded French fort. Bents Fort marks the place where an old Navajo trail and the Santa Fe Trail both met, and is located about seven miles away from the town of La Junta. The fort was built on the north (American) side of the river and about one hundred miles west of today's Kansas-Colorado border.

Bents Fort was a boundary point for American soldiers escorting goods from St. Louis and the environs. From Bent's Fort, Mexican soldiers transported these goods to Taos and Santa Fe. Later it became the focal point to which many French Canadians were drawn. It also served as the headquarters for the very large and contentious Maxwell Land Grant in which Charles Bent had an interest.

Padre Martinez came to oppose American ownership of that extensive property on legal and moral grounds. Bent's Fort later became the rendezvous point and headquarters for General Stephen Watts Kearny, leader of the American army of occupation of New Mexico which gathered there in July of 1846, immediately before descending upon Santa Fe. MAXWELL LAND GRANT Although Padre Martinez neither instigated nor led the Taos Rebellion of 1847, he shared the perception of both Native Americans and native New Mexicans that their ancestral lands were being stolen by a coalition of new immigrants. These newcomers, mostly from Canada and the United States arrived at New Mexico in large numbers during the quarter century between Mexican Independence and the American take over of Santa Fe. Journalist-historian William A.

Keleher in 1942 wrote about the close connection between the Maxwell Land Grant and the 1847 Taos Rebellion. The quarrel in 1844, under Mexican rule, between Padre Martinez, of Taos, and Carlos Beaubien and Guadalupe Miranda, over the Maxwell Land Grant and its boundaries was undoubtedly one of the most important contributing factors to the Taos Massacre of January 18, 1847. Representing his people in Taos, Martinez had claimed, but Beaubien and Miranda had denied, that Charles Bent was interested in the ownership of the Grant... Subsequent to 1846 no secret was made of Bents claim to part ownership in the Grant... The large land grant had been made by Governor Armijo to Charles Beaubien and to his associate Guadalupe Miranda on January 11, 1841. Beaubien arrived to the U.

S. from Canada during the War of 1812 and he settled at New Mexico in 1823 at the same time that several French-Canadian fur trappers were also making their way to Taos. There he married Paula Locate, who was the daughter of a prominent New Mexican citizen. The fifty square miles of land in the Beaubien-Miranda Grant later became known as the Maxwell Land Grant.

The transfer of this enormous territory of more than 1. 7 million acres was made according to Mexican law. On February 22, 1843, Don Cornelio Vigil the Justice of the Peace at Taos, ratified the grant giving possession of those lands to Guadalupe Miranda and Carlos Beaubien. Padre Martinez from the beginning was, nevertheless, strongly opposed to the Beaubien-Miranda Land Grant, and he challenged it on legal and moral grounds. Keleher reports: The plan of Miranda and Beaubien to take over and occupy the land [grant] met with active resistance on the part of Rev. Antonio Jos Martinez, Curate of Taos, who had always opposed large grants of land to wealthy persons, claiming that the lands should be granted to poor people.

Father Martinez vigorously contended in papers filed in Santa Fe and elsewhere that a part of the land granted to Miranda and Beaubien conflicted with lands claimed by Charles Bent, and that a large portion of the land involved belonged to the people of Taos, and other towns, that such lands had been long known as commons and the people had for generations grazed their live stock on them. Martinez claimed among other things that the land had been granted to foreigners, apparently referring to Beaubien and Charles Bent. While the territory of New Mexico was still under the Mexican flag, Padre Martinez obtained a stay of the Beaubien-Miranda Land Grant. He appealed to the supreme government of Mexico and asked for an investigation into the grant given by Governor Armijo. For a brief time Don Mariano Chavez became interim Governor of New Mexico. During this interlude, at the end of February 1844, Chavez signed the order suspending the grant.

However, within six weeks, Armijo was back at the helm, holding the office of civil and military governor of New Mexico. Martinez' legal maneuvering, however, did have the effect of complicating Bent's claim to the land grant. It is clear why Charles Bent did not like the meddling priest of Taos. Martinez challenged his interests in the Beaubien-Miranda [AKA Maxwell] Land Grant.

It is also easy to fathom why enemies of the Padre were later so willing to ascribe to the Padre the assassination of the American governor Charles Bent. Since Martinez was such a well known enemy of Bent, Martinez was a likely suspect for having manipulated the assassination. BENT-MARTINEZ ANTIPATHY French Canadians and Anglo's who had been arriving in Taos were marrying native New Mexican women and were thereby qualifying to become property owners under Mexican law. Charles Bent and Kit Carson became brothers-in-law by marrying the politically well-connected Jaramillo sisters. Immigrants were aware that it would be to their advantage to learn Spanish and adopt Catholic religious ways.

Carson did both, but Bent never did become Catholic. Tensions between the foreigners and old time settlers were growing severe. Conflicts sometimes erupted between the new settlers and their native New Mexican and Indian neighbors who were the long established inhabitants. Charles Bent, one of these newcomers, came to feel that his plans and ambitions were challenged and even thwarted by the Padre of Taos. Consequently he developed a strong personal antagonism against the priest. This antipathy of Charles Bent for Padre Martinez was reflected in correspondence to Manuel Alvarez whom Bent selected as the appropriate recipient of his most strident complaints against Padre Martinez.

Alvarez functioned as U. S. ambassador to Mexico since 1839 from Santa Fe, and was serving as American Consul in New Mexico. In an especially sarcastic letter that Charles Bent wrote to Manuel Alvarez on January 30, 1841, Bent lavished vituperative epithets upon Padre Martinez. Among his hateful and sarcastic appellations were the Calf, Mr. Priest, and the The greate literary Martinez. [sic ] This last insult is especially ironic since Bents letter contrasts so powerfully to Padre Martinez' true literary merits.

Martinez had published spelling books on his own printing press for the Taos elementary school which he had founded as a young priest. Yet the future governor of the territory could not even spell simple words correctly... He says that he is considered by all who he had the opportunity of conversing with, as one of the greatest men of the age, as a literary, an ecclesiastic, a jurist, and a philanthropist and moreover as he has resided in one of the most remote sections of this province inti rely dependent on his own resources for such an immense knowledge as he has acquired, it is astonishing to think how a man could possibly make himself so eminent in almost every branch of knollidege that can only be acquired by other men of ordinary capacity in the most enlightened part of the world, but as he has extraordinary abilities, he has been able to make himself master of all this knowledge by studying nature in her nudest give, he is a prodigy, and his greate name deserves to be written in letters of gold in all high places that this gaping and ignorant multitude might fall down and worship it... whenever the wise rulers of this land heare of the greate fame of this man they will no doubt doe something for thea's people in consideration for the greate care of this more than Solomon.

The source of Bent's antipathy for Martinez, however, was much deeper than their respective disparate levels of formal education or literary expression. A deeper cause of Bents great hatred of the Padre was the latter's opposition to Bents alleged share of the Maxwell Land Grant, originally called the Beaubien & Miranda Grant. Because of Charles Bent's public contempt for the priest, many have assumed that the Padre may indeed have been a perpetrator of the rebellion which made Bent its first victim. THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR The Mexican American War of 1846 - 48 was a momentous event which served as the context for the border war known as the 1847 Taos Rebellion. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought that war to a close in 1848. As a result, significant portions of North America were politically re-configured.

By terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded to the United States parts of the Mexican territories of Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming, and most of Arizona, as well as all of the present states of California, Nevada, and Utah. The war had its roots in the expansionist dreams of the United States which saw as its "Manifest Destiny" that its national boundaries become coextensive with the east and west coasts of the continent. Some went so far as to hope and dream that United States territories should even include all of North America (including Canada) and all of Mexico. Texas was the center stage of the first part of the struggle. General Santa Ana in 1836 successfully defended and kept the Mission of San Antonio de Valerio -- -better known as "The Alamo" -- - for the Republic of Mexico. The Mexican general was subsequently roundly defeated in the battle of San Jacinto, and Texas became its own independent Republic of Texas until the United States annexed it in 1845.

A moderate rehearsal for the 1847 Taos Rebellion took place ten years earlier, in 1837, at the village of Chimayo, about sixty miles south of Taos. In order to replete its coffers strained by the defeat of President Santa Ana at San Jacinto in Texas, the Mexican government decided to impose new taxes on its northern outposts. General Albino Perez was sent from Mexico to Santa Fe in order to enforce the tariffs. Like any tax collector from time immemorial, he was not well received. A dispute between some Indians in Chimayo, insignificant in itself, lit the fuse of resentments which exploded in a minor war which literally cost the head of General Perez. For a time after the decapitation of General Perez, Pedro Montoya, a Taos Indian, proclaimed himself governor and sat in the Santa Fe Palace of the Governors.

Although the Mexican government failed to collect war taxes from New Mexico, the people of New Mexico remained Mexican citizens until the American occupation. RESISTANCE TO AMERICAN INCURSION To occupy and possess the land west of the Mississippi river became a serious goal for the United States. The U. S. tried to buy Texas, but its offer was too paltry. With the continuing influx of Anglo's into New Mexico, and the development of commerce fostered by the Santa Fe Trail and Bent's Fort, westward expansion through military might became, by 1845, a very powerful force in New Mexico.

The American intention to invade New Mexico, however, was not passively accepted by the descendants of the original Spanish settlers who, without moving anyplace, were now residing on land which was part of Mexico. On July 11, 1846, New Mexican Governor Manuel Armijo asked Pascual Martinez, the brother of Padre Martinez, to invite ten principal citizens of New Mexico to meet with him in Santa Fe. The purpose of that meeting was to strategize on the best way to deal with the impending incursion of a foreign army. Four of the ten who were invited to the meeting were priests, and the first one on the list to be invited was Padre Martinez of Taos. However, he chose not to come. It seems that the well-regarded Priest no longer favored the path of resistance as he had in previous years.

By 1846, Padre Martinez had effectively changed from being a Mexican nationalist to becoming an enthusiastic American citizen. He quickly accepted the personal invitation of General Kearny to come to Santa Fe and to swear allegiance to the United States of America. Padre Martinez seems to have come to the conclusion that Mexican resistance to American might was not militarily viable in New Mexico. Padre Martinez' pleas for action in the face of the coming of the Americans went unheeded by his Mexican president General Santa Ana and his ecclesiastical superior Bishop Zubira. Consequently Martinez may have judged that the future for New Mexicans would be better served by their encroaching American neighbors rather than by the distant Mexican center of power which had historically neglected its own northern frontier and its people. In light of Padre Martinez' previous strongly expressed opinions resisting American influence, his favorable reactions upon the arrival of General Kearny into Santa Fe must have come as a surprise or even shock to many who knew him rather well.

Manuel Armijo's meeting to strategize resistance to the American army took place less than a month before Kearny's entrance into Santa Fe. The majority of those who attended the meeting were influenced by Padre Martinez noticeable absence, and the decisions were inconclusive. The clear preference of the majority reflected that of their leader Padre Martinez who was not present. His absence was interpreted as a pragmatic option not to squander New Mexican blood by attempting to resist the inevitable American occupation. It was also seen as an option in favor of a new political order for New Mexico under the United States of America. It is likely that the assessment of Benjamin Read, a native New Mexican historian, would closely parallel the thinking of Padre Martinez.

Read had a family connection to the Padre: his brother Larkin was married to Martinez' niece. Benjamin Read also obtained from the Martinez family many of the papers and documents of the priest which were used in the Illustrated History of New Mexico which Read published in 1912, the year of New Mexico's admittance into American statehood. The people of New Mexico in submitting to the American army deserve no censure for its apparent lack of patriotism or civic valor, but are rather worthy of admiration for having foreseen that if that war would inevitably have to result in the defeat of Mexico, and the economical material, industrial conditions of the Territory demanded, as a prudent and necessary thing, the step taken by the people in declaring in favor of the American government, insuring thus the happiness and higher civilization of the inhabitants of the Territory. The change was furthermore made necessary because of the contempt and abandonment with which the Spanish and Mexican governments had treated the inhabitants of New Mexico.

In hindsight it was a mistake for Padre Martinez not to have personally attended the strategy meeting called by General Armijo to plan resistance to the United States' occupation. Martinez might have directly expressed his opinions and tried to thoroughly convince the other New Mexican leaders of his viewpoint and reasons for them. Without the presence of the more moderate voice of Padre Martinez, the well articulated minority of persuasive nationalist voices, although in the minority, held sway: that they should indeed steadfastly resist the enemy invaders. As soon as it was learned in Santa Fe that the American army was encamped at Bent's Fort, a private meeting was held in the City of Santa Fe, in which the principal citizens took part with the object of discussing the steps that should be taken...

The majority of the persons present preferred to surrender without resistance; the others... held that the enemy should be fought against. AMERICAN INVASION Charles Bent had for some time known General Stephen Watts Kearny, the leader of the Army of the West. On hearing of the projected American invasion, Bent and his partner Can St. Spain decided to visit with the general, who was at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, the headquarters for the United States' operations against Mexico. While there, Bent invited Kearny to camp out at his fort before going into Santa Fe and the General accepted the invitation.

In 1846, the Army of the West under General Kearny set out from Fort Leavenworth toward Bent's Fort. The cavalry regiment and 500 volunteers were under Colonel Doniphan, and Colonel Sterling Price followed with another division of 1800 men. The two armies of Colonels Doniphan and Price consisted of a total of 3500 men, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Just before departure from Bents Fort, General Kearny issued a proclamation to the citizens of New Mexico in which he declared that he was entering New Mexico looking for union and to better the conditions of those who were living there. He also urged the people to be at peace. The armies under Kearny's leadership departed from Bent's Fort on July 31, 1846.

RESISTANCE CONTINUES While many were preparing to embrace the new order of things under the American government, the forces of resistance were still strong. Although in the minority, the Mexican nationalists presented to General Armijo on August 7 the recommendation to resist American military presence by force of arms and might. On the following day, Armijo issued a ringing patriotic call which he may have already intuitively recognized as little more than political posturing and hallow rhetoric: ... if we are not able to preserve the integrity of our Territory, all this country would very soon be the prey of the greed and enterprising spirit of our neighbors of the north, and nothing would remain save a sad remembrance of our political existence. But for Gods sake it must not be so!

The Mexicans of today are yet those of the year 1810. Two days later, Armijo followed that plea with seemingly bold action. He asked New Mexico's Departmental Assembly to appropriate funds for maintaining their military strength against the invaders; the Assembly approved this request on the same day, August 10. However, in an attempt to either appease or negotiate with the superior forces of the American enemy, Armijo vacillated and on the next day rescinded his request for funds to wage war.

On August 12, together with leaders of the New Mexican resistance, Armijo attended a decisive secret meeting with James Magofin and Capt. Philip St. George Cooke who were delegates of General Kearny. Kearny's delegates traveled from their headquarters at Bents Fort to the town of Las Vegas in northeastern New Mexico for this sequestered conference with Governor Armijo and a few of his key advisors. Armijo discovered that his unpaid soldiers had little enthusiasm for active resistance and this helped convince him of the futility of such a course. In order to save face and possibly also his life, Armijo fled to Durango, Chihuahua.

He realized that if he had made vain attempts at resistance, he certainly would have been killed. According to Mexican law, Cornelio Vigil was the rightful successor to Armijo as governor, but there was no regard nor recognition of Vigils claim. There was now to be a new political order. "BLOODLESS" OCCUPATION OF SANTA FE After more than two weeks of weary travel through Mora and Glorieta Pass, General Kearny and his soldiers entered Santa Fe on August 18, 1846 to occupy New Mexico in the name of the United States of America. Kearny took formal and peaceful possession of the city of Holy Faith.

For the prior quarter century, this capital had belonged to the Republic of Mexico, and for the previous two and a half centuries, it had been part of New Spain. Kearny issued a proclamation shortly after his entry into this country and promised to respect the customs, language, and religion of the people. He assured them that their lands and properties would be respected and kept safe. Furthermore, he notified all the inhabitants that those who were willing to become American citizens could do so by making a simple declaration in favor of the American government.

Those, however, who wished to remain citizens of Mexico could also do so by also declaring themselves as such. By the time of the occupation, Padre Martinez seems to have come to terms with it, not only tolerating it as inevitable but even accepting it somewhat enthusiastically. General Kearny offered Padre Martinez a personal invitation to become an American citizen. Kearny ironically dispatched to Taos an escort of twelve soldiers led by Captain Charles Bent, the priest's enemy, in order to personally extend the invitation. The Padre, his two brothers, and other prominent citizens came to visit with the general in Santa Fe.

During the visit, all three Martinez brothers -- -the Padre Antonio Jos, Jos Mara, and Pascual -- -were sworn in as American citizens. Padre Martinez offered his printing press to the general for the publication of official notices. The press was taken from Taos to Santa Fe and the first law book of the American Southwest, entitled Kearny's Code of Laws, was printed and issued by General Kearny. From this time on, New Mexico was governed by the new code. General Kearny promulgated the new laws, and then proceeded to enumerate to the new citizens of the United States their Declaration of Rights. On August 30, two weeks after the occupation, General Kearny attended High Mass at the main church of Santa Fe in order to symbolize his respect for the customs and beliefs of the New Mexican people.

He promised the people that they, their lands, their customs, and their religion would remain intact despite their changed citizenship. Enthusiastic about his new American citizenship, Padre Martinez returned to Taos determined to learn English better and to promote it among his students. In the early fall he exhorted them: to be competent citizens and to study the English language. Although things seemed peaceful immediately after the American occupation, it did not take long for serious conflict to develop.

Within a month after his arriving at Santa Fe, Kearny called a council of the Indian Nations in Santa Fe, but few of the chiefs came. He wanted to officially proclaim that fighting between Indians and Mexicans would no longer be tolerated, but there was little interest in hearing that message. The U. S. Army engaged in skirmishes with Indians along the Rio Grande and Chama Rivers for several months.

Although the Indians renewed and intensified hostile activity, Kearny was confident that his soldiers would well enough handle the turmoil with the Indians in New Mexico. On September 25 he left for California to shore up the military operation of John C. Fremont on California theater of the Mexican American War. Meanwhile, from the beginning of autumn 1846 until November 25, Major William Gilpin stayed in...


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