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Example research essay topic: 1 And 2 Outer Planets - 1,337 words

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... e accomplished. Telemetry contact was lost on 15 November 1995 at a distance of 106 million km. Future mission planning had included a 23. 6 km / s , 10, 000 km flyby of Comet P/Honda-Makes-Pajdusakova on Feb 3, 1996 (approaching the nucleus along the tail) some 0. 17 AU from the Sun, and a 14 million km passage of Comet P/Giacobini-Zinner on Nov 29, 1998. Suisei (the Japanese name meaning 'Comet') was launched on August 18, 1985 into heliocentric orbit to fly by Comet P/Halley. It is identical to Sakigake apart from its payload: a CCD UV imaging system and a solar wind instrument.

The main objective of the mission was to take UV images of the hydrogen corona for about 30 days before and after Comet Halley's descending crossing of the ecliptic plane. Solar wind parameters were measured for a much longer time period. The spacecraft is spin-stabilized at two different rates (5 and 0. 2 rpm). Hydrazine thrusters are used for attitude and velocity control; star and sun sensors are for attitude control; and a mechanically design offset parabolic dish is used for long-range communication.

Suisei began UV observations in Nov. 1985, generating up to 6 images / day . The spacecraft encountered Comet P/Halley at 151, 000 km on sunward side during March 8, 1986, suffering only 2 dust impacts. Fifteen burns of Suisei's 3 N motors over 5 - 10 th of April 1987 yielded a 65 m / s velocity increase for a 60, 000 km Earth gravity assist swing on August 20, 1992, although the craft was then lost behind the Sun for the summer. The hydrazine was depleted on 22 February 1991.

Preliminary tracking indicated a 900, 000 km flyby had been achieved. ISAS had decided during 1987 to guide Suisei to a Nov. 24, 1998 encounter with P/Giacobini-Zinner, but due to depletion of the hydrazine, this, as well as plans to fly within several million kilometers of Comet P/Tempel-Tuttle on Feb. 28, 1998 has been cancelled. In the decade following Sputnik I, the United States and the USSR between them launched about 50 space probes to explore the moon. The first probes were intended either to pass very close to the moon (flyby) or to crash into it (hard landing). Later probes made soft landings with instruments intact and achieved stable orbits around the moon. Each of these four objectives required increasingly greater rocket power and more precise maneuvering; successive launches in the Soviet Luna series were the first to accomplish each objective.

Luna 2 made a hard lunar landing in September 1959, and Luna 3 took pictures of the moon's far side as the probe flew by in November 1959. Luna 9 soft-landed in February 1966, and Luna 10 orbited the moon in April 1966; both sent back many television pictures to earth. In addition to the 24 lunar probes in the Luna program, the Soviets also launched five circumlunar probes in its Zone program. Early American successes generally lagged behind Soviet accomplishments by several months but provided more detailed scientific information. The U. S.

program did not bear fruit until 1964, when Rangers 7, 8, and 9 transmitted thousands of pictures, many taken at altitudes of less than 1 mi (1. 6 km) just before impact and showing craters only a few feet in diameter. Two years later, the Surveyor series began a program of soft landings on the moon. Surveyor 1 touched down in June 1966; in addition to television cameras, it carried instruments to measure soil strength and composition. The Surveyor program established that the moon's surface was solid enough to support a spacecraft carrying astronauts. In August 1966, the United States successfully launched the first Lunar Orbiter, which took pictures of both sides of the moon as well as the first pictures of the earth from the moon's vicinity.

The Orbiter's primary mission was to locate suitable landing sites for the Apollo Lunar Module, but in the process it also discovered the lunar mascon's, regions of large concentration of mass on the moon's surface. Between May 1966, and November 1968, the United States launched seven Surveyors and five Lunar Orbiters. Clementine, launched in 1994, engaged in a systematic mapping of the lunar surface. In 1998, Lunar Prospector orbited the moon in a low polar orbit investigating possible polar ice deposits, but a controlled crash near the South Pole detected no water. While the bulk of space exploration initially was directed at the earth-moon system, the focus gradually shifted to other members of the solar system. The U.

S. Mariner program studied Venus and Mars, the two planets closest to the earth; the Soviet Veteran series also studied Venus. From 1962 to 1971, these probes confirmed the high surface temperature and thick atmosphere of Venus, discovered signs of recent volcanism and possible water erosion on Mars, and investigated Mercury. Between 1971 and 1973 the Soviet Union launched six successful probes as part of its Mars program. Exploration of Mars continued with the U.

S. Viking landings on the Martian surface. Two Viking spacecraft arrived on Mars in 1976. Their mechanical arms scooped up soil samples for automated tests that searched for photosynthesis, respiration, and metabolism by any microorganisms that might be present; one test suggested at least the possibility of organic activity. The Soviet Phobos 1 and 2 missions were unsuccessful in 1988. The U.

S. Magellan spacecraft succeeded in orbiting Venus in 1990, returning a complete radar map of the planet's hidden surface. The Japanese probes Sakigake and Suisei and the European Space Agency's probe Giotto both rendezvoused with Halley Comet in 1986, and Giotto also came within 125 mi (200 km) of the nucleus of the comet Grigg-Skjellerup in 1992. The U.

S. probe Ulysses returned data about the poles of the sun in 1994, and the ESA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) was put into orbit in 1995. Launched in 1996 to study asteroids and comets, the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) probe made flybys of the asteroids Mathilde (1997) and Eros (1998) and is scheduled to orbit Eros in 2000. The Mars Pathfinder and Mars Global Surveyor, both of which reached Mars in 1997, were highly successful, the former in analyzing the Martian surface and the latter in mapping it. The Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander, however, were lost upon their arrival at Mars in 1999, as was Deep Space 2, twin probes that were to penetrate the Martian surface near the South Pole. These losses set back NASA's Mars exploration program which includes six probes originally scheduled to be launched between 2001 and 2005 by at least two years.

Japan's Nozomi orbiter, launched in 1998 and originally scheduled to reach Mars in 1999, will arrive four years later because of a need to conserve fuel. Space probes have also been aimed at the outer planets, with spectacular results. One such probe, Pioneer 10, passed through the asteroid belt in 1973, then became the first object made by human beings to escape the solar system. In 1974, Pioneer 11 photographed Jupiter's equatorial latitudes and its moons, and in 1979 it made the first direct observations of Saturn. Voyagers 1 and 2, which were launched in 1977, took advantage of a rare alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to explore all four planets. Passing as close as 3, 000 mi (4, 800 km) to each planet's surface, the Voyagers discovered new rings, explored complex magnetic fields, and returned detailed photographs of the outer planets and their unique moons.

Launched in 1989, the Galileo spacecraft followed a circuitous route that enabled it to return data about Venus (1990), the moon (1992), and the asteroids 951 Gaspra (1991) and 243 Ida (1993) before it orbited Jupiter (199599); it also returned data about the Jupiter's atmosphere and its largest moons (Io, Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto). The joint U. S. -ESA probe Cassini, launched in 1997, will explore Saturn, its rings, and some of its moons upon arriving in 2004. Bibliography:


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Research essay sample on 1 And 2 Outer Planets

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