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Confucianism is, and has been for over 25 centuries, the dominant philosophical system in China and the guiding light in almost every aspect of Chinese life. Confucius and his disciples traveled all throughout China in an attempt to convert rulers to the Confucian belief system. (author unknown, Confucianism). Originally one of several rival teachings during the Choudynasty (1027 256 BC), it wasnt widely accepted at first but, by the 2 nd century BC, had become the official creed of China (Benets Readers Encyclopedia, Edition 3, p 208 AA). Kung Fu-tzu, the father of Confucianism, was born in 551 B.
C. of a noble family who had lost their wealth and position. His father, who died when KungFu-tzu was two, is said to have been a celebrated soldier of tremendous size and might who was seventy years old when Kung Fu-tzu was conceived. Kung Fu-tzu was the youngest of eleven children.
He was raised in poverty but received ago education. After accepting a minor government position, he married and fathered a son but eventually divorced. (Sprunger). He was unsuccessful as august official, so he opened a school. He taught using books that would come tobe known as the Confucian Classics.
These books were I Ching (Book of Changes), Rites of Chou, Book of Poetry, Book of Documents, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Classic of Music. (class notes, Sept. 23, 1998). Before the Third Century BC, Confucianism was essentially a system of moral laws that society should follow in order to reach the Confucian ideal. Confucianism advocated education, jen (benevolence), rituals or Li, which involved knowing your proper position (i. e...
king behaves like king, father like father, son like son). (class notes, Sept. 23, 1998). Jen is expressed through thrive relations sovereign and subject, parent and child, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. Of these, the filial relation is usually stressed. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Edition 5, p 8867). Each of these relationships involves someone inferior and superior.
A subordinate person must treat his or her inferiors with respect. The ruler must set the moral standard. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Edition 5, p 8867). Kung Fu-tzu insisted that education was key to gain virtue or jen. (class notes, Sept. 23, 1998). Confucianism stressed struggling for education and adhered to the idea that man should try to improve upon himself. Confuciusbelieved that it was possible for a man, most importantly a ruler to become animal being by practicing Li and Jen and by obtaining a proper education. (class notes, Oct 9, 1998). Early Confucianism took no interest in the idea of Tao or some greater power and, before it was altered during the Han dynasty, had no concept of cosmic forces.
It dealt solely with life on earth (class notes Oct. 9, 1998). Confucius declined to deal with all things spiritual. He once said about heaven and the concept of an after-life, If we dont know everything about this life, why bother with another. (class notes Sept. 23, 1998). Mencius (371 - 289 BC), regarded as the Second Chinese Sage, developed and added to Confucianism. He believed in the basic decency of human nature, but he was skeptical of government. It was his belief that rulers exist to provide for the good of the people, in both material goods and moral guidance.
He stated his thesis as: The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain come next; the sovereign counts for the least. He promoted low taxes, free trade, conservation of natural resources, and welfare legislation for the old and disadvantaged. (Compton's Encyclopedia Online, Mencius) Mencius was born in about 371 BC in the state of To, China. He was a student a pupil of Confucius grandson. Much of his career was spent traveling from state to state and advocating change, though he became a teacher when here older. He lived during the period of the Warring States (481 - 221 BC), so he found little support among princes and nobility for his ideas on the merits of the common man and of democracy. The book Mencius is a collection of his sayings and a record of his life put down in writing by his pupils.
For more than 1, 000 years he has been regarded as the cofounder of Confucianism. (ComptonsEncyclopedia Online, Mencius). Confucius did not speak directly about the nature of human beings, the rights of the people against corrupt rulers, and the supernatural. Two of his disciples, Mencius and Xunzi (Hs n-tzu), did much to clarify these issues. Mencius asserted that human nature was basically good and that it could be developed not only by study, as Confucius taught, but also by inner self-cultivation. Like Confucius, Mencius accepted the hierarchically ordered feudal society in which he lived, but he placed far greater stress on the responsibilities of the ruler for the welfare of the people. The Zhou rulers held their position under a doctrine known as the Mandate of Heaven.
Mencius held that the Mandate of Heaven was expressed by the acceptance of a ruler by the people. Ifthe people rose up and overthrew a tyrant, it was proof that Heaven had withdrawn its favor. Therefore, Mencius claimed the common people had the right to revolt. Xunzi took an exactly opposite view of human nature; he asserted that rebellion was fundamentally evil. Xunzi, however, was optimistic enough to believe in peoples unlimited capacity for improvement.
He taught that through education, the study of the classics, and the rules of etiquette, virtue could be achieved and order could be reestablished in society. Xunzi thus endowed Confucianism with a philosophy of formal education and a tendency toward rigid rules for the regulation of human conduct (author unknown, CONFUCIANISM) After the death of Confucius two major schools of Confucian thought emerged: one was represented by Mencius, the other by Xunzi (Hs n-tzu, also known as Xunkuang, or Hs n Kuang). Mencius continued the ethical teachings of Confucius by stressing the innate goodness of human nature. He believed, however, that original human goodness can become depraved through one sown destructive effort or through contact with an evil environment. The problem of moral cultivation is therefore to preserve or at least to restore the goodness that is ones birthright. In political thought, Mencius is sometimes considered one of the early advocates of democracy, for he advanced the idea ofthe peoples supremacy in the state (Encarta Online Deluxe, Mencius).
Chinese philosopher Xunzi (Hs n-tzu) was an important early figure in Confucianism, a major system of thought that originated in China. Xunzi wrote the book that bears his name sometime during the 3 rd century BC. In direct contradiction with his predecessor, the Chinese philosopher Mencius, Xunziargued that humans are evil by nature, and that only law, order, and adherence to the rules of etiquette can lead humans away from the chaos caused by their self-centered desires. Xunzi considered heaven a detached force that operated independently of human society. He disapproved of superstition and held up practices such as the proper cultivation of crops, decorum in behavior, and just government as correct ways to prevent hardship (Weber) Confucianism met with resistance in 213 BC. Scholars were banned from starting Confucian classes.
Li Ssu ordered all Confucian books. This burning resulted in the loss of many original texts (author unknown, CONFUCIANISM). Kung Fu-tzu's teachings experienced a brief period of eclipse in the 3 rd century BC, but during the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220) the Confucian works were restored to favor, becoming the basis of later civil service examinations. Candidates were appointed to government positions based on their knowledge of classic literature. Confucianism thus secured a firm hold on Chinese intellectual and political life (Nylon). The civil service examination system was initiated in the Han dynasty and survived until 1905.
The idea of a state ruled by able men of virtue stemmed from Confucian philosophy. Confucian Classics were studied for the test. The examination system attempted to recruit men on the basis of merit rather than the basis of family or political connection. Because success in the examination system was the basis of social status and because education waste key to success in the system, education was highly regarded in traditional China.
If one passed the provincial examination, ones entire family was raised in status to that of scholar gentry, thereby receiving prestige and privilege (Sprunger). In 140 B. C. Emperor Wu tried to unify the thought of the country, and onthe recommendation of Tung Ching-Shu, a famous scholar of the time, he decided to make Confucianism the state thought (author unknown, Influence). Tung Ching-Shu altered Confucianism to make it more appealing to the people. He made Confucianism more like Taoism by including the metaphysical aspects that Confucianism lacked.
The ideas of Yin and Yang as well as the five cosmic forces were added, therefore making it more attractive to the people. (class notes Oct. 9, 1998). Lao-Tzu explained the harmonious yet dualistic principles of yin and yang: When some things are deemed beautiful, other things become ugly. When things are deemed good, other things become bad. Existence and nonexistence create each other. Difficult and easy produce each other. Long and short are fashioned from each other.
High and low contrast each other. Before and behind follow eachother. (Levitt) This steered later Confucianism into the universal arena that early Confucianism avoided, but Tao clung to. This made the two ideals slightly less contrary. (class notes, Oct. 9, 1998). Confucianism was beneficial to the Han dynasty because it aided Emperor Wu in his plans for the dynasty. If the ruler performed benevolence, he was justified in his rule. Therefore, if Emperor Wu performed benevolence, the people would have reason to believe he had the right to be the emperor.
Confucianism advocated the lesser / greater positions of people. Therefore, the ruler was superior to the common people and they were expected to treat has such. (Class notes October 9, 1998). A new found interest in Confucianism created conflict. A university was created to teach Confucian scholars. An Erudite position was created for those people familiar with the Confucian Classics. Many commentaries were written on the Confucian Classics.
However, many of the original classics were burned in Li Ssus fire. Therefore, many of the scholars were studying and writing commentaries on books other than the originals. This lead to the split of Confucianism into two schools. The New Text School studied the newer texts because many of the old texts were lost. The Old Text School studied a script that Confucius great grandson claimed was an original.
The original text andthe more contemporary texts were very different. This lead to much debate between the two groups as to which school was correct in its interpretation of Confucius beliefs. (Class notes October 9, 1998). Following the fall of the Han dynasty, Confucianism was overshadowed by the rival philosophies of Taoism (Taoism) and Buddhism (Sprunger) The Sui Dynasty (589 - 618) supported Buddhism generously. Buddhism was introduced from India in the 1 st century BC. It appealed to both the nomads and native Chinese, who welcomed its approach to the basic problems of life, its message of salvation, and its art. By the time the Sui unified China, Buddhism had become the most important religion in China, helping to unify the people ofthe north and the south, who had grown apart during the centuries of separation (Levitt).
The Sui emperors supported Buddhism by building and / or repairing places of worship, giving land and money to various sects and temples, and consulting with Buddhist leaders about scholarly problems. With the patronage of the Sui, Chinese Buddhism blossomed. Buddhism in China no longer had to depend on foreign missionaries. It produced its own teachers, whose knowledge was as deep and extensive as that of anyone from India. Their knowledge was, more importantly, uniquely Chinese resulting from a Chinese understanding of Buddhist teachings. As the fame of these Chinese teachers spread, students came from other countries to study under them, turning China into a major center of Buddhist learning (Encarta Online Deluxe, Sui Dynasty) During the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), Buddhism was still favored over Confucianism.
The most important institutions in Tang society were the Buddhist temples, which succeeded in maintaining their independence despite government attempts to control them (Levitt). The Song dynasty (960 - 1279) gave rise to a system of Neo-Confucian thought based on a mixture of Buddhist and Taoist (Taoist) beliefs (author unknown, Influence). During the Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911) scholars advocated a return to the earlier Confucianism of the Han period, when it was still unadulterated by Buddhist and Taoist ideas. Scholars wrote criticisms of the Confucian texts using philology, history, and archaeology to reinforce their ideas. In addition, scholars such as Tai Chen introduced an empiricist point of view into Confucianphilosophy.
This lead to a new evolved branch of Confucianism known as Neo-Confucianism (Delwitten, p 249) Neo-Confucianism branched out into two schools of philosophy, the Lior Law school and the Hsin or Mind school. Chu Hsi, an eminent thinker second only to Confucius and Mencius in prestige, was the foremost exponent of the Li school who established a new philosophical foundation for the teachings of Confucianism by organizing scholarly opinion into a cohesive system. According to the Neo-Confucianist system Chu Hsi represented, all objects in nature are composed of two inherent forces: li, an immaterial universal principle or law; and chi, the substance of which all material things are made. Whereas chi may change and dissolve, li, the underlying law of the myriad things, remains constant and indestructible. Chu Hsi further identifies the li in humankind with human nature, which is essentially the same forall people.
The phenomenon of particular differences can be attributed to the varying proportions and densities of the chi found among individuals. Therefore, those who receive a chi that is not pure will find their original nature obscured and should cleanse their nature to restore its purity. Purity can be achieved by extending ones knowledge of the li in each individual object. When, one has investigated and comprehended the universal li or natural law inherent in all animate and inanimate objects, one becomes a sage (Appanley, p 54) Opposed to the li (law) school was the hsin (mind) school of Neo-Confucianism.
Wang Yang-ming was the major defender of the hsin school, who taught the unity of knowledge and practice. His major proposition was that apart from the mind, neither law nor object exists. In the mind a reincorporated all the laws of nature, and nothing exists without the mind. Ones ultimate effort should be to develop the intuitive knowledge of the mind, not through the study or investigation of natural law, but through intense thought and calm meditation (Appanley, p 172 - 174) Neo-Confucianism continued to spread and in 1241 the court officially honored Zhu Xi and other Neo-Confucian thinkers. Later, the Yuan dynasty made Zhu Xis commentaries on the Confucian Classics a requirement for the civil service examination; they remained a requirement almost to the end of the Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911) (Delwitten, p 353). Confucianism began as a set of beliefs Kung Fu-tzu had difficulty convincing anyone in authority to believe.
Through many philosophers with their numerous ideas, Confucianism has evolved and split into sects through out history. The believer in this philosophy in all its forms, through various times in history, have been united in their adherence to the emperors rule and also shunned and condemned to death. Through all the changes in both Confucianism itself, the people, the nation, and other religions, Kung Fu-tzusideas managed to always triumph in China.
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