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Cultural Diversity and Psychology Counselling Cultural diversity is one of the most important issues that contemporary psychology counselors have to face, since it means that they have to ensure that the methods used for client with one cultural background would be alike suitable for the client with completely different cultural background. Cultural diversity poses a number of problems for professional counselors, however the theories and methods they use do reflect the notion of cultural diversity and take it into consideration. Within the course of this research, we will elaborate on how cultural diversity has changed counselors methods of evaluation as well as how the notion of cultural diversity became incorporated into them. An irrefutable element in contemporary psychological and counseling practices is the seminal work of Sigmund Freud, who originally conceptualized the notion of the unconscious and its effect on human behavior (Kovel, 96 - 98). A core principle in Freud's theories espoused that unpleasant or traumatic childhood experiences - if suppressed in the unconscious and denied by means of defense mechanisms - could subsequently surface as inexplicable thoughts or behaviors in adult life (Geldard, 12 - 13). Psychodynamic therapy, whilst firmly established in Freud's original concepts of psychoanalysis, explores the dynamic nature of the anxiety caused by conflict between the id, ego and superego (McLeod, 32 - 33).
Specific techniques include free association and resistance interpretation - encouraging the client to say whatever freely comes to mind and analyzing areas of defensiveness; dream analysis - dreams seen as uncensored thoughts from the unconscious; and transference - allowing the client to project feelings onto the therapist. Burgeoning from the classical psychoanalytical school are two philosophies conceived in the latter part of the twentieth century known as Object Relations and Attachment Theories. Corey (111 - 114) explains that Freud applied the word object to define any person or thing embraced, usually by a child, as the target of feelings or drives. Melanie Klein developed the Object Relations Theory as an extension of this original hypothesis. The theory describes the enigma precipitated by the childs need to direct all emotions at one object usually the mother or primary caregiver and its inability to integrate the simultaneous concepts of love and hate. Klein suggests that this inability to tolerate ambivalent feelings for the one object person may bring about underdeveloped personalities in adulthood (Avery, 26 - 27).
D. W. Winnicott added another dimension by introducing the notion of good enough mothering whereby a good enough mother will gradually let her child down to encourage independence, understanding of individuality and healthy object relations. If the process is hurried or degraded the child can create a false self to protect its true self from further distress (Avery, 27 - 28). Attachment Theory (or self-psychology), espoused by John Bowl to oppose those of Melanie Klein, demonstrates that in order for adults to maintain acceptable social and personal attachments they must first have forged secure attachments with their primary caregivers in childhood (Ivey, 172 - 173).
This innate need for positive attachments and a secure base, if unsatisfied, will result in lack of trust and the inability to eventually form sound, intimate relationships (McLeod, 51 - 52). Bowlbys work was corroborated by empirical studies conducted with and by Mary Ainsworth in which it was shown that infants demonstrate varying degrees of anxiety when deprived of the company of their parent (Ivey, 174). In summary, the psychodynamic approach is a broadly based perspective, which extrapolates Freud's original hypotheses and seeks to facilitate client insight by understanding the impact of childhood experiences and defense constructs suppressed in the unconscious. The psychodynamic technique of free association would be particularly useful in counseling the client. The analysis and interpretation of resistance presents as a logical follow on and complementary technique to that of free association. Counselors may discern during free association that clients are avoiding or distorting certain issues, and the interpretation of this defensiveness can direct the client to the actual causes of these unconscious constructs (McLeod, 37).
Laplanche & Pontalis (in Ivey, 197) describe resistance as everything in the words and actions of the client that obstructs his gaining access to his unconscious. Applying this technique would involve listening intently to the clients free association comments and detecting any blocks, slips or anomalies in the narrative. The counselor would need to exercise caution as this particular type of resistance is regarded as the one analysts most dread (Nelson-Jones, 205), by virtue of its potentially harmful nature. Although the analysis and interpretation of resistance can be a valuable tool in helping the client, counselors need to be mindful that resistance serves a purpose for the client by keeping suppressed those memories that would otherwise cause onerous levels of anxiety. Forcing the issue could cause more harm than good (Corey, 122 - 123). Notwithstanding the potential illustrated, the Psychodynamic approach is limited in that it is expensive, time-consuming, and requires a degree of intellectual agility on the part of the client that cannot be presumed (Corey, 128 - 129).
Only highly skilled, professional therapists should be using the technique to avoid wild analyses and the ignorance of the fact that some repression is a normal homeostatic mechanism. Also, there is the risk of developing fostered dependency by creating an environment from which the client is unable, unwilling, or convinced not to, cease therapy. Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is described as incorporating behavior interventions to address inappropriate emotions by altering behaviors, and cognitive interventions to address inappropriate emotions by addressing thought processes. The five main therapies involved in CBT are behavioral - Ivan Pavlov, B.
F. Skinner; rational emotive behavior - Albert Ellis; cognitive - Aaron Beck; reality - William Glasser; and cognitive behavior modification - Donald Meichenbaum (Corey, 7 - 9). Through empirical research, behavioral theorists conclude that maladaptive behaviors are learned, and as such, are capable of being unlearned. Further, that the way behaviors are learned is through classical conditioning repetitive stimulus and response; and operant conditioning rewarding or discouraging behaviors by increasing or decreasing stimuli (George & Cristiani, 87 - 91). Rational emotive behavior therapy is founded on the proposition that thoughts cause feelings and that it is not events that produce anxiety but rather the clients perceptions, irrational beliefs, and continual re-indoctrinating surrounding those events (Cormier & Hackney, 180 - 188). Cognitive counseling, founded by Beck and refined by Carl Rogers, is generally short term, structured, and aimed at teaching clients to adjust their thinking and acquire more adaptive thought processes (Nelson-Jones, 345 - 346).
Reality therapy is commonly used in the short term with difficult clients who do not respond to the more subtle approaches, and involves directing clients to take control of their lives and to accept responsibility for their actions (Ivey, 275). Cognitive behavioral modification connects the other approaches and encourages modification in the behavioral, emotional and cognitive aspects of the clients lives (Ivey, 228). For instance, lets assume that the client is bothered by anxiety and lack of sleep. Considering the clients symptoms (anxiety and lack of sleep) and the potential for these symptoms to cause more serious physiological conditions, a regime of relaxation and stress management techniques is indicated.
Whilst (often protracted) psychodynamic counseling addresses the unconscious root causes of anxiety and sleeplessness, behavior therapy is directed at the symptom (or behavior) itself. Relaxation training incorporates progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobson in Cormier & Hackney, 232) and / or having the client visualize a particularly comfortable and stress-free image from the past. Relaxation techniques have been shown to reduce oxygen consumption, decrease heart and respiratory rates as well as lowering blood pressure. Mastering these techniques, the client would not only realize that previously overwhelming stress could be overcome, but he / she could extend this ability to be in control into other difficult areas of life (Ivey, 235 - 238). Professor Robert Priest catalogues a series of relaxation and stress management techniques that include biofeedback, quieting techniques, meditation, and controlled breathing, all of which are considered valuable and therapeutic tools (Priest, 34 - 42).
The client suffers no medically explained condition, and research has shown that significant numbers of similar patients have been cured by the use of cognitive-behavioral counseling. Hence, the client would benefit from these relaxation techniques by being empowered to control the actual symptoms, thus enabling her to better control issues at work in a rational and objective manner. A second technique utilized in cognitive-behavioral counseling is that of keeping a daily record of automatic thoughts. This process, proposed by Aaron Beck, involves the client actually writing down each negative or self-deprecating thought that comes to mind. By doing so the client not only has a diaries record to discuss with the counselor but the process of recording those thoughts in itself reinforces and promotes change by allowing the client to see just how often he / she is unconsciously defeating his / her endeavors to change (Ivey, 270). By recording such thoughts and reviewing them whilst in a relaxed state of mind, the client would be able to see that the disproportionate emotional response he / she was exhibiting to minor or impersonal issues at work were inappropriate and even exacerbating the issues further.
Also, by discerning a pattern of activating events the client and counselor would have an insight into the best subsequent technologies to employ (Nelson-Jones, 331 - 332). As it has been established that the client possibly suffers from feelings of guilt and low self worth, exposing his / her irrational and reproachful beliefs would allow her to accept that she can change; that her problems are not caused by actual events; that she can incorporate rational alternative thoughts; and that she can achieve desired change through commitment and practice of the techniques (Corey, 335). Overall, the suggested counseling techniques of relaxation training and monitoring automatic thoughts would encourage the client to step out of her present self-devaluing thought patterns and view her problems as situations that have been misinterpreted rather than personality shortcomings that diminish her self-worth. Limitations to cognitive-behavioral counseling include the complete denial of the effect of past experiences which may have been repressed as well as the potential to intimidate clients with the rapid pace of the processes (Corey, 359 - 360). Also, by locating the problem on the client and ignoring his / her history, the impact of oppressive family and cultural histories is disregarded (Ivey, 280 - 281).
Finally, the outcomes depend heavily upon the client being candid and committed to the homework factor of the therapy; the process requires the client to conceptualize and understand the theory; and the notion of change in thinking can result in change in behavior and feelings does not have universal professional acceptance (McLeod, 80 - 81). Regardless of the particular type of therapy to be employed, it is essential that counselors in the first instance conduct an intake and history interview to glean details regarding the client and his / her problem (McLeod, 222 - 226). These details would include the gathering of information on current presenting problems degree of anxiety, thoughts, feelings, physical manifestations, patterns; life setting religious, social, work activities; and family and personal history parents, siblings, stability, medical, relationship issues (Cormier & Hackney, 80 - 82). Corey (1991, 5) warns of the need for counselors to be aware of, and sensitive to, the possible influence of cultural and religious norms which may inhibit the clients willingness to share feelings and display emotions. Therefore, employing specific counseling micro-skills when dealing with racially, culturally and ethnically diverse clients is necessary to the establishment of a therapeutic relationship, as is the use of a gender-appropriate communication style (Fook, 150 - 152). Knowing the clients background, and with the real potential of there being gender, racial, religious and cultural barriers to forming a helping and enabling atmosphere, the counselor would need to be especially considerate and aware.
In conclusion, both the psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral theories of counseling have been shown to each offer their own specific methods of therapy in the management of the client. Psychodynamic theory has been shown to be deeply seated in the Freudian school of therapy whilst the cognitive-behavioral techniques were revealed to be espousing more contemporary, action-orientated approaches. Limitations of each theory are presented, revealing that psychodynamic counseling can be a costly, drawn out process that can possibly lead to a client dependency on the therapy, whilst cognitive-behavioral techniques were shown to ignore the effect of past experiences and to rely heavily on the clients own abilities and commitment. Both philosophies were seen to be limited in that they assume a reasonable level of intellectual and conceptual ability on the part of the client. However, the fact that those philosophies take the notion of cultural diversity into consideration is helpful to the contemporary counseling professionals. Words Count: 2, 102.
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Research essay sample on Cultural Diversity And Psychology Counselling
