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Example research essay topic: Englewood Cliffs Egyptian Civilization - 1,623 words

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Order: Midterm 1. Cultural universals are some key elements that exist among different cultures. Here are four examples of cultural universals: (1) religion; (2) visual arts; (3) language; (4) sexual restrictions. All these elements are truly universals as they apply to every culture of the world. For example, all groups of people have some beliefs in god / gods that explained the creation of universe, and other aspects of the world that people could not understand themselves. Just like religion all groups of people have some visual arts.

Some of these visual arts are more primitive than others, but all of them can be considered art. As a matter of fact, one of the characteristics of a human nature is artistic development, and all archeological findings support this. Another universal is language, both written and spoken. Language is a way to communicate, and so just the existence of a group (meaning that people of this group have some common goals) needs some means to communicate, i. e. language.

And finally, all cultures have some sexual restrictions. For most of them it is marriage, but not necessarily. However, there are always some rules that restrict sexual behavior. So far there is no culture that would have people have absolutely no rules that would regulate their conduct in this area. But although all of these key elements are present in all cultures, they dont mean that all cultures are similar. Quite opposite, most cultures are different, and this can be shown by many details.

For example, when considering such obvious and visual thing as womans appearance in different cultures, one can understand that differences between cultures are enormous. For instance, in many African cultures women go to public places topless, wear long skirts, carry a child on their back, and something else (like firewood) on their head. They are often used for hard work, just like men. In India, on the other hand, women wear sari, and they are normally brought up to raise children, to work in the household, etc.

In the countries of Western Europe women are different from both Africa and India. Many of them wear clothes, which look more like mens, and many of them have a regular job outside of the household, just like men. Sources: Murdock, George P. The common denominator of cultures. In Linton (ed. ) The Science of Man in World Crisis. New York: Columbia University, 1945 2.

One of the most ancient civilizations of the world is Egyptian. The people of Egypt lived in Niles first and third cataracts and spoke Nilo-Saharan languages. Their life was very much centered on the Nile, while it was the source of life. Their religion was also very much connected with Nile.

Ancient Egypt was very centralized state, and the power was in the hands of pharaoh (who was a representation of god living on earth), although priests at different times of the Egyptian rule also had much influence. The society was very structured. Overall, the achievements of Egyptian civilization are hard to underestimate. Their doctors were famous all over the world; their scientific knowledge seems amazing to many modern scientists. They used astronomic calendar, written language (on papyrus), and many other things that other nations did not know at that time. Now Egyptian pyramids are the only one of Seven Wonders of the World left till the modern days.

And the most interesting thing is that Egyptian rule lasted for about five thousand years, which is very long comparing with other nations. The territory around the Niles first cataract was conquered by Egypt about four thousands years BC. After that Egyptian civilization spread to the south, and a new kingdom was built in the third cataract the Kush. Their capital was city of Korea, and it was a large trading center in that region. The greatest times for Kush were 1700 and 1500 BC during the Third Intermediate period in Egypt. The culture of Kush is at first glance very much like Egyptian.

The majority of Kushites considered themselves to be Egyptians. Therefore, they followed the traditions of Egypt, although there had been some differences among them. The structure of their society was much like Egyptian, accepting all the Egyptian royal titles, as well as many features of Egyptian architecture and art, although their pyramids were smaller and steeper. However, they had some innovations, most important dealing with government. Their king was elected from the royal family. Just like in Egypt, descent was reckoned through the mother's line.

But later on, there were several queens, which was a major innovation. Kushite religion had many features of Egyptian religion. It had most of the Egyptian gods, although not all gods were Egyptian, for instance a lion warrior god. Sources: Grimal, Nicolas-Christophe. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.

Zonhoven, L. M. J... Annual Egyptological Bibliography, Leiden: International Association of Egyptologists, 1992. 3. Today Africa is a unique blend of different cultures.

First of all, it is indigenous African culture, with indigenous religious and social practices. However, there are not many places when it exists untouched by various influences from other countries, first of all Islamic. For example, on the Swahili coast of East Africa there are many legends of Muslim princes who came to the coast in the ninth century and settled, which is an indication that Islam influence continued for a very long time. Islam brought first of all its language (Arabic), which in many cases became a part of indigenous African languages.

For example, experts say that Arab words constitute from 20 to 50 percent of Swahili language. Secondly, Islam brought formal education. As a matter of fact, the city of Timbuktu had one of the greatest universities in the world. And finally, it divided the society, while Muslim groups declared a holy war against the pagans. However, in the last years European influence is much more significant in African region. This can be seen even from statistics of religious practices in South Africa: 68 % is Christian; 28. 5 % is traditional and animistic, and only 2 % is Muslim.

In some other areas Islam as a religion is more popular, but still European influence now is much more evident. Sources: Mbiti, J. S. African Religions and Philosophy Heinemann Ed.

Books, London, 1969. Shorter, A. African Culture and the Christian Church Geoffrey Chapman Publications: London, 1983. 4. Hinduism is a monotheistic religion, even though it has 33 million gods, including trees and rocks.

However, these gods are not exactly gods, but only faces of one deity. There are three major aspects of deity: Brahma (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver), and Siva (Destroyer). Here are three aspects of Hinduism: Reincarnation: persons soul after death does not go anywhere, but enters another creature. Karma, which means action and consequences of action: Every action, or even thought or desire shape persons future experiences. Ultimate goal is to achieve liberation from different physical limitations through spiritual discipline. Hinduism has some features in common with Buddhism, although many aspects are different.

The major difference is that Buddhism is a so-called non-theistic religion. There is no personal god, who created the universe, and to whom people can direct their prayers. Buddhism is based on the life of Buddha, who was not god, but a man who reached an amazing spiritual growth. One aspect that is similar between Buddhism and Hinduism is that both of these religions urge to practice spiritual discipline, and reject earthly desires. However, in Buddhism the goal for this is somewhat different: this should be done in order to escape the wheel of death and rebirth, and enter the state of Ultimate Reality, or Nirvana. Besides, both in Buddhism and Hinduism an important role of helpers to those who seek are given to gurus, or spiritual teachers.

However, Buddhists say that guru is not always necessary, although most seekers do need their guidance. Sources: Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. 2 nd ed. , New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, 1994. 5. In his crusade for Indian independence, Gandhi developed a philosophy, which blended two important principles: anima and satyagraha. Ahisma is a principle of non-violence taken from Jain teachings.

Satyagraha comes from the word sat, which can be translated as truth. However, it also means some ultimate truth, which is God and morality. So, morality is a basis for Gandhi's philosophy. According to Gandhi, all life is one, and all violence that is directed toward someone is actually directed toward oneself. Even when conflict seems impossible to avoid, violence does not have to be used. The Gandhian governmental system is a direct democracy, which operates on the non-violence principles.

It includes political and economic decentralization; production based on the needs, absence of discrimination, etc. However, today India is not united because of many reasons. First of all, India is a land, which consists of many cultures, and not all of them are willing to cooperate. In the variety of beliefs Gandhian philosophy is not the only one, and many people do practice violence.

Sources: Murphy, Stephen. Why Gandhi is Relevant in Modern India: A Western Gandhian's Personal Discovery. Hyderabad, 1991. Bibliography: Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. 2 nd ed. , New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, 1994. Grimal, Nicolas-Christophe.

A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. Mbiti, J. S. African Religions and Philosophy Heinemann Ed. Books, London, 1969.

Murdock, George P. The common denominator of cultures. In Linton (ed. ) The Science of Man in World Crisis. New York: Columbia University, 1945 Murphy, Stephen.

Why Gandhi is Relevant in Modern India: A Western Gandhian's Personal Discovery. Hyderabad, 1991. Shorter, A. African Culture and the Christian Church Geoffrey Chapman Publications: London, 1983. Zonhoven, L. M.

J... Annual Egyptological Bibliography, Leiden: International Association of Egyptologists, 1992.


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