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On the continent of Africa a small village prepares for an important ceremony and the feast the will follow. Today, 9 little girls ages 5 - 11 will be circumcised by a village woman who has learned the skill from her mother and grandmother. Using a razor blade she will remove their clitoris and labia while they are held down by a few other women from the village. Then, each little girl will be sewn shut, with only a small opening left through which their urine and menstrual blood with flow. If the girls survives the procedure and many bouts of infection that may follow, the stitches will not be removed once she heals from the circumcision.
Instead, they will be torn apart by her husband on her wedding night. Problematic scenes like this play out all over the world (although primarily in Africa) every day. Is the above description of extreme human rights violations, or is it a legitimate cultural tradition? The line between protecting women and children in non-Western societies from human rights violations and imposing Western cultural ideas upon them is thin at best. While this is not a problem to be solved in haste, by exploring incidents from around the world such as Female Genital Mutilation and Chinas one child policy, this paper will attempt to show how such incidents can be approached from both sides of this argument. In a book about making a film which explores Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), or female circumcision, titled Warrior Marks, feminine activist Pratibha writes that, Surprisingly, there was much less controversy than I had expected, given that this subject has always raised passionate responses.
It has been clear that not all women agree on the best strategy for campaigning against female genital mutilation, as shown by the variety of responses to the film and this book (Pratibha xxi). This suggests the cultural conflict between human rights and Western Imperialism is well known to African women. While some believe that FGM is an atrocity, even a severe human rights violation, others see it as an essential part of specific cultures. Those who view FGM as an acceptable cultural practice are offended and often angered by what they see as the interference of Western human rights advocates who do not understand the cultural context in which the mutilation (or as they would say, circumcision) takes place. Besides the controversial debate about FGM that was brought to the surface by this film, there were also positive effects.
For example, Pratibha writes that we [the film makers] received letters from and met with many women of all races and cultures who expressed relief that they had found a forum to talk about their experiences of mutilation. Most important, the films high public profile has encouraged many women who have remained silent about the pain of their own mutilations to begin to share their anger and pain and to end their isolation. Some of these women have become advocates for the campaign to abolish female genital mutilation (Pratibha xxi). This suggests that, when given the choice, many African women would prefer not to have experienced FGM.
However, the only way that this will become possible in the future is through the work of human rights activists, both within their societies and on the outside. Perhaps this also suggests that women who have lived through mutilation need a safe place to discuss their experiences. This would lead one to believe that FGM is not an accepted cultural practice in the eyes of those who have undergone it, like so many proponents argue. Instead, women who undergo FGM feel culturally compelled not to speak out about the pain and adverse side effects which they suffered. Pratibha enforces this point when she writes that What has become clear is that there is a huge lack of counseling support structures for many of the women who have begun to confront the pain of their childhood mutilations. There are very few places for them to go for refuge or for the ongoing support that they need (Pratibha xxii).
This suggests that there needs to be a place where women feel secure enough to voice their pain and concerns about FGM within each individual community. If this were the case, then access would be available in a context that would be much more culturally acceptable than an agency that was funded and run by Westerners. Pratibha mentions that In the last two years we have seen international agencies, particularly those based in the U. S. , commit money and resources to work against female genital mutilation by creating consultancy and advisory posts for women. It remains to be seen how these resources will filter down to the grassroots activists who are at the forefront of efforts to abolish this harmful practice (Pratibha xxii). However, this only emphasizes the need for non-Western based support for women who have faced FGM.
This, perhaps, would be a plausible solution that might be acceptable to both those who believe FGM is an integral part of their society and those who see it as a human rights violation. Another issue that needs to be addressed, is the need rural women have for assistance. Human rights advocates suggest that perhaps more mutilations (and certainly the most brutal and dangerous forms of FGM) take place in rural settings that are often very isolated from larger urban centers that could offer assistance to victims. Perhaps the only feasible solution for helping these women is to address the issue as a human rights violation and attempt to educate the people in every community about the dangers of FGM. This would most likely be more successful if carried out by natives of each area (who are not perceived as outsiders who are just trying to interfere in traditional practices), rather than Westerners.
When asked why she thinks female circumcision persists, despite efforts by activists to stop it, Dr. Henriette Kouyate, a gynecologist based in Dakar, Senegal responded, Many factors are put forward, such as religion, tradition, or hygiene. But the real problem is the need to control the sexuality of women, to control their desires, to try to keep them like children, like someone with no responsibility of her own, who cannot be a human being in her own right (299). Many like Dr. Kouyate dismiss altogether the argument that FGM is a cultural practice, and should therefore not be interfered with.
Another situation has left women and children in the middle of a difficult issue. China is faced with a population crisis that cannot be ignored. However, it is easy to find fault with the way in which the Chinese government has chosen to deal with this problem. While a policy of one child per family seems logical on the surface, it becomes more and more suspect as it is examined more closely, especially as it is applied in model towns throughout China.
Of particular concern was the acceptance of what can easily be classified as forced abortions and sterilization. These are classified by many Westerners as human rights violations. It seemed a common practice to harass a pregnant woman (who either already has a child or has not received the proper permission to have a child) until she agrees to have an abortion. Sterilization is also recommended to these women. Often, very late term abortions are the result of this insistence that not one extra child be born in China.
This fact is emphasized by Chinese birth control propaganda and the endless line of officials that are present to enforce the governments policy. It all becomes very mechanical, precise and cold. Because of this, is the value of life in China being diminished? Or, are Westerners seeing this difficult issue through the eyes of outsiders? Despite all of the above problems, it is difficult to devise a solution that is much better than what the Chinese government has decided to enforce. What might the alternative to this policy be?
What would our country do if faced with a similar problem? This is certainly not an issue which can be easily solved. However, it becomes even more problematic when another side of the issue is examined. Chinese people, and particularly women, are caught in the middle when it comes to bearing children. Economic and social conditions demand a son, but the government restricts births.
Thus, if a girl is born to a family, they are left at a disadvantage no matter what they do. Many are reluctant to admit the fact that this policy has made Chinese people even more desperate for their first (and only) child to be a boy. Girl babies are a disappointment at best for many families in China. While the government focuses on the danger that a family who has a girl baby is more likely to want a second child in hopes of getting a son, there is another (less talked-about) danger present because of this policy female infanticide.
Economic tradition in China has made it almost necessary for a couple to have at least one son to care for them in their old age. Because of this, extreme measures are taken by many to ensure this happens. While some refuse to comply with the one child policy if their first child is not a boy, others are so desperate for a son that they kill their infant daughters so that they will be allowed a second try at a son. While this is very hard to classify as anything other than a human rights violation, there are cultural forces at work as well. Would attempting to change the cultural ideals (that is, wanting a son) of the Chinese people be cultural imperialism?
This is a hard question to answer affirmatively when one considers statistics that indicate almost a whole generation of girls is missing. Thus, by looking at the specific issues of Female Genital Mutilation and Chinas one child policy one can see the complicated problems in trying to differentiate between human rights violations that require outside intervention and cultural practices that should be allowed to continue. However, caution must be exercised not to overlook horrible human rights violations just because one does not want to take part in cultural imperialism. While these are very difficult issues to address, and possibly ones that will never be addressed to the satisfaction of everyone, they must not be ignored. Davis, Joyce M. Between Jihad and Salaam.
St. Martins Press; New york, Goodwin, Jan. Price of Honor: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Guide, Fda El. Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance. 1999. Header, Sue, and Elfin, Margery.
The Cost of Being Female. Praeger, London; Judd, Ellen R. Gender and Power in Rural North China. Stanford University Multhulakshmi, R.
Female Infanticide: Its Causes and Solutions. 1997. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Vintage Books; New York, 1994. Season, Jean P. , and Dawson, Lisa, ed. Princess: A True Story of Life Behind Walker, Alice. , et.
Al. Warrior Marks: Female Genital Mutilation and the Sexual Blinding of Women. Harvest Book; New York, 1996. Wetzel, Janice Wood. The World of Women: In Pursuit of Human Rights. Women, Culture and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities.
Ed. By Martha Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover. Clarendon Press, Oxford; 1995. Bibliography:
Free research essays on topics related to: one child policy, female genital mutilation, women and children, cultural imperialism, human rights violations
Research essay sample on Female Genital Mutilation Human Rights Violations
