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Example research essay topic: History Of Affirmative Action - 1,311 words

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History of Affirmative Action Affirmative action is a complex of positive measures directed to liquidate discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to members of specific groups, such as minorities and women. (Infoplease website, p. 1). The discrimination can be based on different social features, such as color, sex (women at work), nationality, race, etc. In such a way, Affirmative action is the policy of equal opportunities. The Supreme Court has considered the constitutionality of affirmative action in a number of cases involving such issues as admission to educational institutions, job hiring and promotion, exemption from ordinary seniority-bound job-layoff rules, award of public building contracts, and award of licenses for radio and television stations by the Federal Communications Commission. (Levinson, S.

p. 1) The policy of Affirmative action was brought into life in 1965 in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act by President Johnson. Originally it was aimed to give (the immigrants from Latin America and Native Americans Indians, Polynesians, Eskimos, etc) equal opportunities in education and employment to African Americans and other minorities. Such practice was applied to women and invalids as well. It was formulated in the Equal Employment Opportunities Act.

In accordance with the United States Census Bureau, 211 mln Americans have white color of skin and approximately 10 million are Asians. The policy of equal opportunities protects rights of 35 mln African Americans, Latin Americans and approximately 2. 800. 000 of Native Americans. They have fringe benefits when they enter educational establishments (institutes, universities, colleges, etc). European Union had started to use the same policy in 1997, when it created the programs of support of womens employment. According to information of Labor Department, this policy allowed to get a good job to more than 5 million representatives of racial and nation minorities and 6 million women.

Yet, the policy of Affirmative Actions was accompanied by numerous scandals. The Supreme Court of the United States has made a precedent court decision, publishing verdict that white student was discriminated. We speak about the famous Bakke case of 1978. In particular, a white student, Alan Bakke had been rejected by medical school because his place was promised to less qualified representative of racial minorities due to their special admissions policy (16 places out of 100 were reserved in this school in accordance with Affirmative Actions). Bakke had been rejected by the medical school twice, even though he had a higher grade point average than a number of minority candidates who were admitted. As a result of the decision, Bakke was admitted to the medical school and graduated in 1992. (Infoplease Website, p. 1).

Alan Bakke stated that he was a victim of so-called reverse discrimination that disallows the whites having the same opportunities as the minorities. However, the Supreme Court upheld the legality of affirmative action per se (Brunner B. , p. 1) In 1986 the Supreme Court approved decision of company management that fired all white workers while keeping black workers at their working places. During the last years the attitude of American towards the policy of Affirmative Action has changed a lot. California and Washington have already cancelled such fringe benefits.

Critics of this policy consider that Affirmative Action policy opens the doors for African Americans, but close them for whites. Besides, a lot of religious and racial minorities (for example, Jews and Asians) dont have right to use these advantages. Opponents consider that Asians, Europeans and Jews have immigrated to the United States by their own will and lots of immigrants have got good education in their countries of origin. African Americans came to the United States in the vessels of slave-owners.

The historian Roger Wilkins wrote: African Americans have been living on the territory of America for 375 years. They have been slaves for more than 100 years. Only 30 years they are free. The majority of Americans support Wilkins point of view: more than 60 % of Americans consider it necessary to use the policy of Affirmative Actions.

The cases of the University of Michigan were next important ruling concerning the Affirmative Action. The Supreme Court decisively upheld the right of affirmative action in higher education (Brunner B. , p. 1) President Bush said in his speech that the position of Affirmative Action policy wasnt correct in some definite cases. In particular, he noticed that At the undergraduate level, African American students and some Hispanic students and Native American students receive 20 points out of a maximum of 150, not because of any academic achievement or life experience, but solely because they are African American, Hispanic or Native American. (Bush, Remarks, p. 1) Stephan and Abigail Thernstrom considered that it was not correct to encourage the racial minorities by additional points at SAT. They explained that under-prepared African Americans are not able complying with requests of the University. In such a way, they were thrown into academic environments where they cannot compete. (Thernstrom, S. pp. 395 - 411) The cases of the Michigan University proved that although affirmative action was no longer justified as a way of redressing past oppression and injustice, it promoted a "compelling state interest" in diversity at all levels of society. (Brunner B. , p. 1) What are the five myths about Affirmative Actions?

Women of color double-dips. Lots of Americans are sure that if a woman is a woman of color, she benefits from her double outsider status. Despite the common opinion, the combination of being an attorney of color and a woman is a double negative in the legal marketplace, regardless of the type of practice or geographic region involved (Laura M. Padilla, pp. 853 - 885) Affirmative Action disregards merit for women of color; Affirmative Action is justified only after a perpetrator-victim model. This perpetrator-victim model supposes that there should be a victim and a perpetrator. Such correcting model of justice can be used to equalize the sides.

Yet, one of the ideas is that affirmative action beneficiaries are undeservedly preferred to more deserving persons. (Laura M. Padilla, pp. 853 - 885) Affirmative action beneficiaries are stigmatized Such position is not correct: there is no evidence that all beneficiaries of affirmative action are stigmatized. Not all of them have self-doubt and low esteem and even if they do, it can result from their childhood or their social conditions that dont have much in common with their ethical origin or belonging to minority. Affirmative action disregards low-income persons. The common opinion is that only people with middle income can benefit from Affirmative action.

However, it is not correct because even if many current affirmative action beneficiaries are from middle- class families, that was not the case at the dawn of affirmative action. (Laura M. Padilla, pp. 853 - 885). In conclusion I want to tell that Im against the Affirmative action because I think race shouldnt be an issue you can get the job on merit. It is natural that all citizens of our country should have equal opportunities and rights according to Constitution of the United States of America.

The companies should use equal criteria for employment of staff. In particular, I consider the race line on applications unnecessary, because it causes reverse discrimination. Bibliography: Brunner, B. Bakke and Beyond A History and Timeline of Affirmative Action. Retrieved February 11, 2005. web Infoplease website.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke. Retrieved February 11, 2005. web Infoplease Website. The Affirmative Action. Retrieved February 11, 2005.

web Levinson, S. Affirmative Action. Retrieved February 11, 2005. http: // college.

ho. com / history /readers comp/ read / html /ah 001500 affirmative. htm President Bush Discusses Michigan Affirmative Action Case Remarks by the President on the Michigan Affirmative Action Case The Roosevelt Room. Retrieved February 11, 2005. web Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York" Simon and Schuster, 1997), 395 - 411.


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