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Navajo Indians The history of American Indians is unique, tragic and optimistic at the same time. It is unique, because Indians were autochthon's of the American continent and have experienced all stages of its settlement by Europeans, beginning from the first colonies of the 17 th century and up to the development of new western borders at the end of the 19 th century. It is tragic, because of the conflict between aboriginal tribes and European invaders, where traditions and way of life of Indians came to a clash with a quickly developing industrialized society. Nonetheless, the history of Indians is full of optimism, because aboriginal Americans, though deprived of the major part of their land in the 19 th century, survived. They managed to assert their political and economic rights, preserved their national self-consciousness and culture despite invasion of the modern civilization. And the largest and most influential aboriginal tribe of North America is Navajo.
Navajo Indians, numbering about 1 / 4 million constitute the largest group of Indians belonging to the Athapaskan, or Dene stock. According to their myths they emerged from lower worlds somewhere in the San Juan Mountains in south-west Colorado. At present they occupy an extensive reservation in the north-east corner of Arizona and the north-west corner of New Mexico; but many of them live beyond its borders, especially towards the south. The history of Navajo is very rich. According to Anselm Weber they are first mentioned in the writings of Zarate-Salmon in 1626, as Apaches de Navajo. In 1630, a Franciscan, Alonzo Benavides, in his memorial to the King of Spain, mentions the "Province of the Apaches of Navajo" and adds that "these of Navajo are very great farmers, for that is what Navajo signifies great planted fields." Consequently the word "Navajo" may be derived from the Spanish word nava meaning "plain, or field." The Navajo call themselves Dine, that is, people.
In 1630 the Navajo and Pueblo Indians concluded the treaty of peace at Santa Clara. Before that an almost continuous guerrilla war existed between the Navajo and the Pueblo Indians and Mexicans. In 1856 Colonel Doniphan made an expedition into Navajo country, in 1849, Colonel Washington, in 1845 General Sumner. In 1859 war again broke out, and in 1860 the Navajos attacked Fort Defiance. Colonel Miles and Colonel Bonneville and General Canby made campaigns against them.
When the rebellion broke out and the Texans made their invasion, all the troops were removed from the Navajo country, whereupon Navajos rode over the country rough-shod. In 1862 General Carleton sent Colonel Kit Carson with a force against the Navajos. He subdued them, and, mainly by killing their stock and destroying their crops, forced them by starvation to surrender, whereupon about 7300 were transferred to Fort Sumner in south-eastern New Mexico. About 1500 never surrendered; about 400 fled from Fort Sumner to their old homes. In 1863 - 64 the Navajo endured the Long Walk to eastern NM. On 1 June, 1868, General Sherman concluded a treaty with them by which they were permitted to return and a reservation of 17 million acres was established in 1878.
Nowadays Navajo Indians are enjoying all the rights of American citizens. They are proud of being Americans. Nevertheless, they are proud of their own cultural heritage and, no matter how difficult it may be in the modern world, they try to save and preserve it. They are a peaceful and pastoral people who live by their flocks of sheep and goats. Though most of the Navajo ground is not very suitable for cultivating crops and makes them lead a nomadic way of life, most of the families have one abode for their main home, generally in a well-watered valley, where they raise corn, beans, potatoes, melons, oats, tomatoes, etc.
About 60 percent of Navajos are 24 years old or younger. In its infancy, the Navajo Nation governed itself by a complex language and clan system. The discovery of oil in the early 1920 's clarified the need for a more systematic form of government. So, in 1923, the Navajos established a tribal government; thus providing an entity to deal with American oil companies wishing to lease Navajo land for exploration.
Their government is democratic; there is no chief over the whole tribe, and the power of local chiefs depends largely upon their personal influence, their eloquence, and their reputation for wisdom and justice. Today, as stated in the American West Home Page, the Navajo Nation Council has grown into the largest and most sophisticated American Indian government in the U. S. It was reorganized in 1991 to form a three branch government - executive, legislative and judicial. It embodies an elected tribal President, Vice-president and 88 council delegates representing 110 local units of government (known as chapters) throughout the Navajo Nation. Council delegates meet a minimum of four times a year as a full body in Window Rock, Arizona, the Navajo Nation capital.
In addition to their duties as chapter representatives, council delegates also are appointed by the tribal council to serve on at least one of 11 standing tribal committees. So Navajo people with pride call their territory Navajo Land underlining by this its administrative independence. As it is the case with many Indian reservations, Navajo Land is a state inside the state. It has its own government, capital and lives according its own laws, rules and traditions. Even in contrast to Arizona, in Navajo Land they turn to Daylight Saving Time in summer. The Navajo Nation continues to foster its dream to attain economic independence and self-sufficiency.
Yet in the midst of it all, the Dineh still adhere to their cultural, social and traditional values; the same tenacious values that have made the Navajo Nation unique and fascinating throughout its history. At the first glance, life of modern Navajo may seem very ordinary and tedious and it is very surprising that youth does not leave their land for welfare of modern American civilization. But there is a very simple explanation to this. In Navajo Land there exist values that differ greatly from those of the modern world. Navajo people are absolutely devoid of mercantilism. The core of the Navajo life is family and tribe, and to be ostracized from your society is the worst punishment that can exist.
As Anselm Weber states, marriage is contracted early in life. Polygamy and divorce are still prevalent. Their marriage ceremony is only permissible at the marriage of a virgin. The vices of abortion, infanticide, race suicide, are practically unknown among them. According to Al Durtschi every Navajo knows his / her responsibilities in the family. The woman uses her nurturing side to take care of the family and the hogan.
The man uses his aggressive side to provide for the physical necessities for his family. So, the Navajo women raise their children, look after their homes and weave the well-known Navajo blankets, noted for their durability, beauty, and variety of design. Navajo men hunt and protect their families; they are also clever silversmiths, making silver necklaces, belts, bracelets, wristlets, rings, buttons, etc. , of rare beauty, out of Mexican silver dollars. The Dineh have always been self-supporting.
They have little of the sullen, reticent disposition attributed to Indians generally, and are cheerful, friendly, hospitable, and very industrious. Navajo highly respect nature and live in complete harmony with it. For them land is everything. Though Navajo Land is rich in such mineral resources as oil, coal and uranic ore that could provide them a very high income, the Dineh are very skeptic about oil and coal production. They say that nature is their mother and it is inhumane to spoil the face of the Mother Nature to extract energy for others.
They also do not allow conducting archeological digs on their territory. According to their beliefs there are two classes of beings: the Earth People and the Holy People. The earth People are ordinary mortals, while the Holy People are spiritual beings that cannot be seen. Holy People are believed to aid or harm Earth People.
Holy people live in the subterranean world and it is strictly forbidden to disturb them. Their philosophy is also very interesting. According to Al Durtschi they point out four directions in their life. East: This is the direction of the dawn and it is our thinking direction.
We should first think before we do anything. When the sun comes up, we look to the... South: This is our planning direction where we plan what we are going to do. The sun sets in the... West: This is our life, and is where we do our living. Here is where we act out our plan and our thoughts of the east and south directions of our lives.
The sun goes down in the... North: This is the evaluation portion of our lives. This is where we get our satisfaction and we evaluate the outcome of what we first started in the east. Here is where we determine to change things to make it better, or to see we are on the right path and should continue the cycle. This philosophy allows Navajo always believe in the renewal of life.
No matter how hard your life may be today, there is always tomorrow that gives you new opportunities and that can always change your life for the better. The modern world with its technical revolution has almost destroyed the Navajo world. The Dineh have nearly followed the fate of many nations that were invaded by Europeans and found it difficult to exist in both worlds feeling like they don't fit in either world. But Navajo have survived due to their tenacity, high spirituality and wise philosophy. It is wrong to say that time has sopped in Navajo Land. Their philosophy says that to preserve the health of the tribe, it is necessary to keep traditions and absorb changes that are taking place in life.
That is why Navajo consider themselves a society of two cultures that uniquely coexist and make the people stronger. Due to this outlook Navajo have survived and are destined to flourish in the future. References: 1. Weber, Anselm. Navajo Indians.
The Catholic Encyclopedia. Online. Volume X. 15 Sep. 2003. 29 Jun. 2004. < web > 2. American West Home Page. Explore the Navajo Nation. 29 Jun. 2004. < web > 3. Smith, L.
Michael. NAVAJO: Dine (The People). 1998. 30 Jun. 2004. < web > 4. Durtschi, Al. An Introduction to the Navajo Culture. Living in the Navajo Past Website. 2 Sep. 1999. 30 Jun. 2004. < web >
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Research essay sample on 19 Th Century Pueblo Indians
