Example research essay topic: Stages Of Development Cultural Evolution - 1,361 words

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Theory Chart Essay There are many anthropological theories, shaping ethnographic traditions and the culture concept. Cultural evolution is a set of anthropological theories that have been widely criticized and promoted by anthropologists and scientists. The present paper examines Unlineal Cultural Evolution and Functionalism theories and compares and contrasts cultural anthropology theoretical perspectives by L. H. Morgan and Radcliffe-Brown. Unlineal Cultural Evolution, also referred to as cultural evolution theory, is closely associated with Lewis Henry Morgan.

The major concepts of unilineal cultural evolution theory rest on the Enlightenment notion of progress. This theory was shaped in the mid-late 1900 s. The most important aspects of this theory include the belief in a psychic unity of all humankind (meaning that all people have similarity of their thoughts irrespective of their culture; the belief in universal evolutionary stages of development, characterizing transition from a primitive to more developed and civilized society; the assumption that all societies go through the stages of evolution, and these evolutionary stages are the same for all societies, irrespective of their cultures; and the idea that the Victorian society, under this theory, is the supreme and highest form of civilization, to mention a few. It should be also mentioned that Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory is based on so-called comparative method that rests upon assumptions that more primitive cultures are like living fossils. (FUNCTIONALISM) Finally, there is an ethic perspective in that universal patterns form the core of this theory. In such a way, unlike the Functionalism theory, shaped by Radcliffe-Brown, Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory places high emphasis on three important assumptions.

First, modern societies, under this theory, are likely to be classified as more primitive than more civilized. The theory also foresees a number of stages a society should go through from being a primitive and becoming a civilized one. Finally, all societies, both contemporary and those from the past, are supposed to go through these stages with the similar sequence, obeying the same rules with no exception. In its turn, the Functionalism theory by Radcliffe-Brown considers all social structures as those that contribute to the functioning of the society as a whole. The scientist in his works compared a variety of world cultures and conducted a thorough analysis of different social structures in the cultures from various parts of the world, that were in geographical isolation from the other world cultures, in order to prove his theory that humankind tends to develop specific kinds of social structures resembling the functioning of the organs of human body. Both theories were criticized a lot.

Radcliffe-Browns Functionalism theory, the so-called structural functionalism approach was developed in response to the outdated (as it was considered by Radcliffe-Brown) anthropological theories, like Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory. In his work, similar to Lewis, the anthropologist placed high emphasis on social structure. However, unlike Lewis, Radcliffe-Brown considered that our society can be examined as a certain system of relationships that functions through so-called cybernetic feedback. In its turn, social institutions, as it was claimed by Radcliffe-Brown, were sets of relationships, the main function of which was to maintain society as a specific system. Unlike like Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, under the Functionalism theory, social constitutes a specific reality level, which is completely different from levels of inorganic matter and biological forms (FUNCTIONALISM). The Functionalism theory also foresees that all attempts to explain social phenomena should be done within a social level.

Unlike Lewis, Radcliffe-Brown also claimed that people could be treated as transient occupants of social roles that can be replaced easily by any other form. Moreover, Radcliffe-Browns viewpoint concerning individuals was also completely different from that of Lewis, as Radcliffe-Brown asserted that individuals were irrelevant. While examining the Functionalism theory, it can be easily noticed that this theory was constructed in response to outdated ideologies (as it was claimed by the Functionalism theory's founder) (FUNCTIONALISM). In such a way, the Functionalism theory was developed in purpose to move away from diffusion ism and evolutionism theories that were very popular in the United States society at that period of time.

In such a way, Radcliffe-Browns anthropological theory moved away from diachronic and historical study of cultural traits and customs to synchronous and a historical examination of social institutions within the framework of functioning societies. Unlike Lewis Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, Radcliffe-Browns approach presented a comprehensive effort to expand narrow social and cultural inquiries beyond the outdated limits of evolutionary concepts. Under Cultural Evolution theory, an observed cultural fact was seen not in terms of what it was at the time of observation but in terms of what it must stand for in reference to what had formerly been the case" (Lesser 1935: 55). In his works, Radcliffe-Brown made an analogy between organic and social lives to better explain the concept of function. He did not take into account individual needs and was more focused on attempts to examine the contribution of this phenomenon to maintaining social order. In this theory, he claimed that as biological organism lives, it fails to preserve the unity of constituent parts but still manages to preserve the continuity of structure.

As this occurs, the structure of these constituent parts remains the same, while the cells change and do not remain the same. Radcliffe-Brown then compares this analogy with social life, claiming that individuals can be examined as units that are tied together by a set of specific social relations, comprising the integral whole. Similar to organic life, the continuity of social structure cannot be ruined if the units undergo changes. In other words, in case human beings die (leaving the society) other human beings can replace them.

In such a way, unlike Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, Radcliffe-Brown claims that this continuity can be maintained through the process of social life, which, in its turn, comprises of various interactions and activities of the individuals and groups of individuals. Therefore, social life is the function of social structure, and the function of any recurrent activity is the part it plays in the social life as a whole and thereby, the contribution it makes to structural continuity. (Radcliffe-Brown 1952: 178) Conclusion So, the major differences between these two theories are as follows. First of all, Unlineal Cultural Evolution (or cultural evolution theory) rested upon the assertion that there are universal evolutionary stages of development each society must undergo on their way from primitive to a civilized society. The founders of this theory believed that there was a specific psychic unity of all mankind, and that all people had similarities of thoughts, irrespective of the culture they belong to. At the same time, the Functionalism theory (also known as Psychological Functionalism, Structural-Functionalism (associated with Radcliffe-Brown), or British Social Anthropology) was influenced by Herbert Spencer, and asserted that society is comprised of the parts that are interrelated (resembling the parts of the human body). Unlike the Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, the founders of the Functionalism theory asserted that the only valid explanation of social institutions existence is that these social institutions maintain stability of entire system.

This theory also placed high emphasis on the daily functioning of social forms (e. g. , why do some societies disappear almost immediately, while others last for centuries). Radcliffe-Browns Structural Functionalism approach is a subarea of Functionalism theory. Unlike Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, this theory was influenced by Emile Durkheim (namely, by his scientific work dedicated to social solidarity).

Unlike Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory, it is not focused much on psychology or the individual needs, but is more focused on how cultural institutions coexist, maintaining equilibrium. Finally, it should be also mentioned that both theories have weaknesses. For example, the approach of Unlineal Cultural Evolution theory is anti 0 theoretical, and this theory is inimical to general theory of culture. At the same time, Structural Functionalism approach expresses a marginal interest in history and fails to address cultural change. Works Cited FUNCTIONALISM. 2009. 30 March 2009 < web >. Lesser, Alexander. "Functionalism in Social Anthropology. " Mintz, S.

History, Evolution, and the Concept of Culture, Selected Papers by Alexander Lesser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Radcliffe-Brown, A. Structure and Function in Primitive Society: Essays and Addresses. London: Cohen and West, 1952.

Research essay sample on Stages Of Development Cultural Evolution