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Example research essay topic: Played An Important Role 11 Th Century - 2,360 words

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... re regions of Canada. Due to these glaciers a lot of water was concentrated and the water levels in the oceans went down, revealing a 1, 000 -mile landmass between Siberia and Alaska. Geographers have called this landmass the Bering Land Bridge or Beringia. Further, due to the glaciation much of the natural vegetation shifted southwards. The animals that are today found in cold regions followed them.

For instance, the reindeer, lemmings etc. then lived in places that are extremely warm for them today. Archaeological evidence shows that the walrus existed in parts of Virginia during that age. The first American Indians were hunters and gatherers who stayed in bands of twenty to fifty people.

Through the centuries, these Indians (called 'Clovis' by archaeologists) lived and adapted themselves to the new geographical conditions after the Ice Age. And about eleven thousand years ago, these tribes died. But the others who separated from the 'Clovis', to exploit the resources of the grassland survived and continued to adapt. Before the first Indians disappeared, hundreds of tribes spread out in the continent, and developed their own language and culture. Many American Indian tribes today attribute their ancestry to the 'Clovis' Indians.

Then some of these tribes settled due to various objective and subjective factors. And from these settled villages, rose great civilizations in about 1500 BC. These civilizations emerged in the South American Continent, where environmental conditions were best suited. The earliest of these civilizations was that of the 'Olmec's. ' The Olmec was not just a separate culture entity that arose in the Gulf of Mexico; it was also a religion that spread to most of the civilized parts of South America. This religion consisted of symbols, rituals and spirits.

The main god of the Olmec religion was the Rain God, a figure with both human and jaguar-like features. This Rain God was worshipped by later civilizations like the Aztecs, the Mayans etc. Civilizations like the Olmec, the Zapotec and the Maya shared many things in common. Chief among them was their calendar system.

American civilizations had a calendar system that consisted of 2 calendars: a solar year of 365 days and the ritual cycle of 260 -days. The two calendars worked in such a way that they converged once every fifty-two years. For the native Americans this convergence every 52 years was very auspicious, thus celebrated through public ceremonies to mark the event. Another important civilization was at Teotihuacan, with its majestic pyramids. Not very far from Mexico City, this civilization flourished in 150 BC and lasted for a millennium.

Teotihuacan was a well planned city, neatly divided into neighborhoods knows as 'barrios. ' Besides Pyramids (600 totally), the town also had beautifully carved temples, along with a huge market place. The civilization grew due to its vast stretches of irrigated fields. The power of the Teotihuacan declined sometime before 750 AD. By AD 800, the people from the city migrated towards the east and the South and soon the city was abandoned. The reasons for the decline of this ancient city could be rebellion or because their fields had been overused thus lowering the produce. Later, new civilizations emerged.

Among them were the Toltecs, with their capital city called Tula. This city soon became a center for soldiers and merchants who controlled the entire region of ancient Mexico and Central America. The Toltecs were followed by the Aztecs. The Aztec Empire is considered to be one of the greatest in South America.

The Maya: The Mayas were contemporaries of the Olmec's. While the latter civilization declined and disappeared, the Mayas, by AD 300 had developed a remarkably advanced culture, which flourished till AD 900. From the ruins, scholars have gathered that the Mayans had built huge and aesthetically beautiful temples. Besides their monumental architecture, the Mayans had also advanced in astronomy, recording their observations in screen folds (books made of lime covered bark paper). Mayan writers also wrote calendrical religious inscriptions on ceramic vessels.

These inscriptions and records reveal that the Mayans had a well-developed script. Known to be a peaceful people, who believed in the policy of 'live and let live, ' this civilization buckled under the onslaught of the weapon wielding Spaniards. In North America, the Indians did not settle down to do agriculture due to the climatic conditions. Thus, they did not make the advances their counterparts made in the South American continent. There were various tribes like Beaver, Chippewa, Cree, Crown, Yellow Knife, Mohegans, etc. Since the growing season was too short for agriculture, they gathered plants, nuts and berries.

Hunting and fishing were the chief activities. As far as shelter was concerned, nomadic tribes used portable 'tepees'; while the others built strong log homes to stay. Communal sharing extended to land use, the hunt and the home. Although one particular family ploughed a piece of land, they did not own it. It belonged to the entire tribe. The women especially from the Iroquois tribe played a major role in political matters.

In this tribe (Iroquois) which lived in villages, married men stayed or joined the family of their wires. And while the women did the farming, the men went out to hunt, fish and war. So influential was the authority of the women in this tribe, that they sometimes prevented military expeditions by refusing to supply food or footwear. Within the tribe, there was a healthy spirit of competition in hunting, fishing and fighting, children were brought up on egalitarian values. Without any written laws or jails, order and discipline was maintained, by way of ostracism. Though civilized, their lack of technological knowledge - especially in the used of weapons, rifles, etc.

and a lack of unity between the various tribes were the 2 main reasons for their inability to resist the European onslaught in the New World. Initially, these tribes accepted the white foreigners in their midst, and helped them to adjust and learn about their new environment. However, soon a bitter struggle ensued. For as European settlements increased, land grabbing and the control of fur trade at the expense of the native Indians caused a long, bloody war in the north. Not content with cattle raising and sugar plantations, the Spanish Monarchy wanted wealth to fill their coffers. Moreover, rumors were afloat about the existence of civilizations in Mexico and South America, known for their wealth.

The Dark Age began in the fourth century with the coming of the Barbarians who invaded the mighty Roman Empire and destroyed it. They brought about great destruction. However even during the Dark Age, which lasted up to, the eleventh century, rulers like Charlemagne, the king of the Franks and Alfred the Great, the king of England, brought some enlightenment. Further, Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued to shed the light of civilization and culture. During the sixth century, Arabia shot into prominence under the new religion of Islam. The Arabs were galvanized into a mighty power that conquered country after country, thus building up a large Islamic empire.

The Medieval period began in Europe with the end of the Dark Age and thus law and order was restored. It lasted from the 11 th century to the 14 th century Europe, which had experienced anarchy during the Dark Age, gradually recovered and built a new culture, which was a combination of the features of the ancient cultures of Greece and Rome, and those of the life of the barbarians. Christianity played an important role in the generation of medieval European civilization, which had several achievements. Feudalism, an organization based on land tenure, was an important feature of this period. During the Middle Ages, there was the growth of a national identity in Europe.

Nations like England, France, Hungary, Denmark, Norway and others sprung into being. At this time, guilds were organized in cities and town. The church provided spiritual food to the people and rendered useful social service. Liberal arts were studied and universities were established. A vast mass of literature was produced in Latin and in the vernaculars.

New styles of art and architecture developed and much progress was achieved in Science. Thus, during this formative period, Europe and Asia fell victims to the cruel nomadic hordes of the Mongols. The Mongol rule established a link between the east and the west thus Europe was enriched by the impact of the Chinese civilization. The Ottoman Turks became prominent in the 11 th century.

The Turks had a great ambition to conquer Constantinople and in 1453, Sultan Muhammad II attacked it successfully. The fall of Constantinople is regarded as a great landmark in world history, as it marked the beginning of the modern times. In India the medieval period extended from the death of Harsha in 647 AD, to the Mughal invasion in 1526 AD. It was a period of transition that witnessed the rise of several states. The Rajputs played an important role in North India, until the Muslim invasion. The Arabs were the first Muslims to come to India.

Three centuries after the Arab invasion, the Turks established their power in India. The Muslim dynasties ruling India, during the medieval period, with Delhi as their capital, were the Slave, the Khilji, the Tughlak, the Sayyid and Lodi. The two kingdoms that rose to power in the south were the Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar, established in 1336, and the Bahmani kingdom of the Muslims, established in 1347. Babar, a descendant of Timur (a great leader of the Mongol-Tartar hordes), became the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. 5000 BC - Development of Civilizations begin in the Nile river valley. Sumerians establish their first agricultural settlements in the river valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. 4500 BC - Metal Works begin in both Egypt and Sumer. 4000 - 3500 BC - Sumer: First towns are established. 3760 BC - Early use of bronze is recorded in Egypt and Sumer. 3500 BC - Two kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt flourish side by side. The earliest known numerals and Hieroglyphic script are invented.

Development of the Mastaba, a burial pit covered by a brick platform. It was the forerunner of the pyramid. 3200 BC - Sumerians begin to develop cuneiform writing, the oldest writing system. 2600 BC - Papyrus used in Egypt. Before this the Egyptians wrote on stone 2551 BC - Khufu becomes Pharoah and builds the Great Pyramid at Giza. 1500 BC - End of Indus Valley civilization. The beginning of the Shang Dynasty in China. 1550 - 1070 BC - The New Kingdom. People from Palestine settle there. 1140 BC - First Phoenician colony in Africa at Utica. 1116 BC - Assyrians conquer Babylon. 1000 BC - Rig Veda compiled in India. 800 BC - Development of India's caste system. 507 BC - Democracy is established in Athens. 279 BC - Asoka founds the first Indian Empire. 27 BC - Augustus becomes the first Roman Emperor. 306 AD - Constantine I becomes the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. 320 AD - Chandragupta founds the Gupta dynasty in India. 324 AD - Constantine reunites the Roman Empire. 330 AD - Constantine founds Constantinople, on the sight of the Greek city of Byzantium, as the capital of his empire (Istanbul).

History is the account of events narrated in a chronological order, and deal with the past of mankind. It connects the past with the present and shows the way to the future. This is the period for which written historical records are not found. It is divided into the Stone, the Bronze and the Iron Age. Civilizations imply the progress of mankind in all fields. They occurred mainly due to the flourishing of peoples around the rivers: Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and the Nile.

Egyptian - the earliest known civilization Mesopotamia - This 'Fertile Crescent' became a melting pot of cultures of mainly the Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians and the Chaldeans, which made various contributions. Phoenicians They served as a link between the Egyptians and the Babylonians, thus connecting the east to the west. Hebrews They are credited with having given the world spiritual philosophies upon which Judaism and Christianity are based. Indus Valley Prior to the arrival of the Aryans in the Indian sub-continent, there a highly civilized society of the Days had been existing. The history of the Aryans is chronicled in the four Vedas: Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. The Aryan period was followed by a number of important dynasties and India reached the height of glory in the Gupta Age, also known as the Golden Age.

China An important dynasty of ancient China is the Chou dynasty which brought forward two important philosophers: Confucius and Lao-Tze. They gave Confucianism and Taoism respectively. The Chinese civilization can be credited with the art of making paper and silk-weaving, and the invention of ink, gun-powder and the mariner's compass. Greece This formed the foundation of European culture. It presented the world with the modern alphabet, the concepts of democracy and philosophy as well as the most important philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Rome Not only did they preserve the Greek heritage against the Barbarians, they also contributed in the field of administration in an important way.

Emperor Constantine made Christianity one of the official languages of the Roman Empire. It lasted through the fourth to the eleventh centuries with the barbarians invading and destroying the Roman Empire completely. Such kings as Charlemagne and Constantinople formed the saving grace of civilization at this time of barbarism. At the same time, Islam was becoming a dominant religious influence spreading from the Arab land.

Medieval Europe was characterized by a number of important concepts: nationalism, feudalism, progress in Science, new styles of art and architecture, vernacular literature. It recorded the first signs of modernism. Medieval Asia the invasion of the Mongols on Europe and Asia served to provide a Chinese influence on these cultures. With the Turks plundering Constantinople, the modern times were ushered in. The most important event to occur at this time in India was the advent of Islam. Bibliography: None


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