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Example research essay topic: Third World Nations Washington D C - 1,781 words

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... Cancer Project. At most, the use of pesticides results in twenty extra deaths from cancer per year in the United States (out of a total of 200, 000) equivalent to about 1 percent of the deaths caused by the use of spices like mustard and cinnamon, and about one-hundredth of 1 percent of the deaths caused by natural properties of foods themselves. Proponents of "organic" farming might counter that this is, all the same, unacceptable: though we cannot (or do not wish to) eliminate the risk of cancer from eating spices, we can (and ought to) eliminate the risk from chemical pesticides. But not only would this be a hugely expensive proposition, costing the economy at least $ 1 billion per saved life, it would be counter-productive. If pesticides were phased out, fruit and vegetables would become more expensive, causing people to eat fewer of them in favor of fattier and starchier foods; this in turn would significantly increase the rate of death from cancer and heart disease.

A similarly stark example comes from a cost-benefit analysis of the precautionary principle as applied to climate change caused by carbon-dioxide emissions ([CO. sub. 2 ]). On the assumption that global warming will occur to about the degree most often predicted, and that we do nothing about it, its adverse effects are likely to cost the world economy about $ 5 trillion in total -- not a trivial sum. If, however, we attempt to stabilize global [CO. sub. 2 ] emissions, we will be faced with a cost of about $ 8. 5 trillion, while actual cutbacks in [CO.

sub. 2 ] emissions could cost an astronomical $ 38 trillion. Surely, suggests Lomborg, there are better ways to spend $ 33 trillion than in combating what is almost certain to be an insignificant environmental problem. This, indeed, is the central message of Lomborg's book: given the range of large and small problems that we face as a civilization, we should use our resources wisely, in ways that are likely to pay off in the long term. Although there is less starvation than there has been in the past, undoubtedly it is a moral imperative to reduce it even further.

And the methods for doing so are not mysterious. In order to increase agricultural production in the developing world, we need to improve farming methods, both through better technology (genetically modified foods) and by increasing the use of existing aids to agriculture (fertilizer). These methods will not be available to third-world farmers if they remain impoverished. In like manner, poverty is the main stumbling block to improvements in the environment and human health. The point here is stunningly simple. The real way to improve the environment is to reduce poverty in the world; the real way to reduce poverty is to encourage the global development of free and efficient markets.

This requires a substantial initial investment in public health (sanitation and access to clean water) and education. Beyond that, however, the requirements are virtually cost-free -- consisting, in the main, of democratic governance and adherence to the rule of law. (One of the conspicuous subtexts of The Skeptical Environmentalist is that exceptions to the general trend of global improvement have occurred in totalitarian systems; thus, caloric consumption, while rising in most of the developing world, has fallen in Cuba and Iraq. ) But the link between free-market economies and human progress is, perhaps more than anything else, exactly what the environmental movement is most perturbed by. Lomborg puts his finger squarely on this issue -- the extent, that is, to which environmentalism has become a proxy for anti-capitalism. It is, he says, the "environmental trump card, " and it goes like this: even if we are doing better and better on almost every objective environmental indicator, we still need to change our way of life by decreasing consumption, limiting industrial activity, and sharing resources. As Lomborg goes on to point out, this argument, untethered from either an objective evaluation of risks or any consideration of what will actually leave us better off, is wholly ideological. Indeed, if we followed the course of action loudly advocated by the largest environmental organizations, we would almost certainly end up, as P.

J. O'Rourke put it in his 1994 book, All the Trouble in the World, in "a just and peaceful world full of powerless nobodies who are broke and have empty shopping malls. " And herein lies the great value of The Skeptical Environmentalist, even apart from the clarity with which it shows that the state of the world is improving. A reader of this book cannot fail to be made acutely aware of the relationship between environmental decisions and human welfare. That relationship is precisely what goes suppressed or unrecognized when environmental issues are discussed by most policymakers and in the media, and it is certainly never invoked when the precautionary principle is under discussion. Bjorn Lomborg is correct to say that, in deciding how to apply our resources in order to better the state of humanity, we must be guided by evidence and not by intuition. He is also correct to point out, as was Julian Simon before him, that our record in this regard has been astonishingly good.

The current economic situation of third-world nations is in part the result of low levels of development, their backward industry, and old-fashioned agricultural methods. It is understandable why their economies have leftovers of colonialism. The third-world nations, with 70 per cent of the world's population, survive on only 30 per cent of the world's GNP. Their per capita income is only one-twelfth of that of the other countries, and the divergence is still rising.

At the recent UN conference of the least-developed states, in Paris, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Javier Perez de Cuellar said: "in the past decade, the social and economic situations in the most undeveloped nations worsened, GNP per capita decreased and the amount of foreign trade was only one percent of that of world trade. " In addition, though these countries contain and fabricate the main portion of the world's energy and raw materials, three-fourths of the oil supply, one-third to one-half of the world's most significant non-ferrous metals and many other minerals, they only utilize a small piece of their wealth for themselves, most of these materials satisfying the needs of the developed countries for energy and raw materials. Even though developed countries and third-world nations are both responsible for global environmental degradation, there are profound differences between the way each has contributed to that degradation. Underdevelopment and lack of environmental sensitivity are the main explanations for third-world contribution to environmental problems. The underdevelopment results from the prolonged colonial plunder, control, exploitation, and oppression to which they have been subjected. Consequently, their natural resources and environments were seriously harmed and wasted. Nowadays, because of the combined effects of a weak economic base, irrational economic structures, a low level of science and technology, overpopulation with no sign of progress, as well as heavy domestic and foreign indebtedness, these countries are not capable to sustain the financial and technological burdens needed to substantially improve the environment.

Although they have achieved independence, in order to survive, some of these countries have no alternatives but to interact with the environment in a disparaging manner. This result is inevitable because in balancing the economic viability of a country against the need to protect the environment, the former will invariably win. Additionally, as the international environment continues to deteriorate, the third-world states will be less and less able to clean up their own environments. This is further convoluted by the indifference of the developed countries in regards to the developmental problems of third-world countries. For instance, several delegations at the ninth session of the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Program, in May 1981, called attention to the problem of "hazardous chemicals being exported to developing countries" and "to the need for co-operation with relevant international programs, particularly the International Program on Chemical Safety.

The formulation of any international environmental legislation by the world community must be based on the principles of the enduring sovereignty over natural resources of states, in addition to the five principles of peaceful coexistence. The economic and social facility of the third world, as well as its individual problems and needs, must be considered at all times. We must also respect the sovereignty of third-world states and protect their material interests. Sanctioning third-world nations is unwanted and ineffective. International treaties have been negotiated on the strength of equality and they have established international commitments that should be added by and implemented at the public level. I am convinced that a vast number of third-world nations will play an leading role in the creation of international environmental legislation and its implementation, thus making an even greater contribution to the protection of the earth.

Words: 3199 Bibliography: Wang Tie Yak, "The Third World and International Law, " Chinese Yearbook of International Law, 9 - 36 (1992) J. P. Holdren and P. R. Ehrlich, "Human Population and the Global Environment, " American Scientist, May-June 1994 S. P.

Holdren, G. C. Daily, and P. R. Ehrlich, "The Meaning of Sustainability: Biogeophysical Aspects, " in Defining and Measuring Sustainability: The Biogeophysical Foundations, M. Munasinghe and W.

Shearer, eds. (Washington, D. C. : world Bank, 1995) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Second Assessment (Cambridge, U. K. : Cambridge University Press, 1996) N. Nakicnovic, A.

Grubler, and A. McDonald, Global Energy Perspectives (Cambridge, U. K. : Cambridge University Press, 1998) Y. Harashima and T. Morita, "A Comparative Study on Environmental Policy Development Processes in the Three East Asian Countries: Japan, Korea, and China, " Environmental Economics and Policy Studies I, no. 1 (1998) S. P.

Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) G. Qu, Environmental Management in China (Beijing: UNEP and China Environmental Science Press, 1991) The World Bank, World Development Report 1992 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) The World Bank, Environmental Implications of the Economic Crisis and Adjustment in East Asia, Discussion Paper Series No. 1 (Washington, D. C. : The World Bank, 1999) United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), An Urbanizing World: Global Report on Human Settlements 1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). P. H. Raven and T.

Williams, eds. , Human Nature and Society: The Quest for a Sustainable World, Proceedings of the 1997 Forum on Biodiversity, Board on Biology, National Research Council (National Academy Press. 2000) G. McGranahan and J. Song sore, "Wealth, Health, and the Urban Household: Weighing Environmental Burdens in Accra, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo, " Environment, July/August 1994


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Research essay sample on Third World Nations Washington D C

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