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... bsp; A study conducted by the U. S. Food Supply series reported per capita nutrients and food available for consumption from the years 1909, 1945, 1975, and 1999 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Though this survey does not measure actual consumption, it serves as a useful summary of probable nutrient levels in the United States for these four years. Food was divided into categories of meat and alternatives, milk and milk products, vegetables, fruits, and grains.
Some notable trends include a decrease in whole milk, but an eightfold increase in cheese consumption (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Poultry consumption has also increased greatly, from 17 lbs in 1909 to 95 lbs in 1999, but red meat consumption has decreased only slightly in these years, from 148 lbs to 134 lbs (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Nutrients, according to the 2002 study, have fluctuated significantly over the past century (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Many levels of per capita nutrient levels have remained fairly constant or increased from 1909 to 1999, several largely due to food fortification and enrichment. Foliate and iron are good examples of these nutrients, having increased dramatically in availability due to enriched flour and breakfast cereals (Bente and Gerrior, 2002).
Calcium levels have fluctuated greatly, starting at 760 mg per capita per day in 1909, to 1, 070 mg in 1945, then dropping back down to 990 mg in 1999 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Vitamins A, E, and C have increased in availability, while Vitamins B 6, B 12, and potassium have remained approximately the same (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Nutrient Levels from U. S.
Food Supply, selected years 1909 1945 1975 1999 vitamin A 1240 1540 1590 1780 micrograms vitamimilligrams Foliate 323 347 330 641 micrograms Vitamin B 1 micrograms Vitamin E 7. 2 10. 5 14 17. 8 micrograms Vitamin C 98 119 114 132 milligrams Calcium 760 1070 870 990 milligrams Iron 14. 2 16. 4 16. 4 23. 6 milligrams Potassium 4060 4270 3450 3890 milligrams Increase of fats and sugars in the American diet While the nutrient levels in the American diet have mostly survived the rise of convenience foods, the amount of fat and sugar consumed in the United States has risen significantly, causing concern among many over the health benefits, or detriments, of our changing meal. Additionally, the consumption of corn sweeteners has risen from less than 5 lbs in 1909 to 85 lbs in 1999 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). This change is largely due to a huge increase in consumption of carbonated soft drinks and other sweet beverages (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). Per capita consumption of soft drinks in 1994 was 40 gallons per year, and in 1990 it was estimated that 21 percent of refined sugar consumed in the United States came from soft drinks (Dortch, 1997). Today, consumption has risen to 56 gallons per day, about six hundred 12 oz cans of soda, each containing the equivalent of approximately ten teaspoons of sugar (Schlosser, 2002). From a nutritional standpoint, daily availability of carbohydrates and protein, in Figure 8, has remained stable, while total fat has increased steadily over the decades (Bente and Gerrior, 2002).
Per Capita Availability, U. S. Food Supply 1909 1945 1975 1999 carbohydrates 500 425 381 500 mg protein 101 104 92 111 mg fat 122 138 144 164 mg A closer look at the sources of food energy shows that sugars and sweeteners, as well as fats and oils, have risen in percentage in the 1900 s, while meats and grains have declined slightly as sources of energy from 1909 to 1999 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). The increase in percentage of sugars as carbohydrates has been documented in other cases of modernization (Bindon, 1994).
More of our calories are from polyunsaturated fats, coming from refined food sources (Dortch, 1997). Increased food consumption In general, Americans eat more food now than they did a century ago. This trend has developed alongside a rapidly expanding array of food choices. More food we can eat usually turns into more food we do eat, not just in the United States, but also as a general pattern of human behavior (Marcus and Spake, 2002). The growing prevalence of food courts, vending machines, and fast food restaurants allows Americans to be constantly consuming (Marcus and Spake, 2002).
Portions in restaurants, fast food and otherwise, are becoming larger, and super-sizing is economical for both the vendor and the consumer (Marcus and Spake, 2002). But large portions come with extra calories (Marcus and Spake, 2002). Food energy on a per capita availability basis has increased from 3500 kcal per day in 1909 to 3800 kcal in 1999 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). More significantly, the 1999 value is recovered from a drop to 3300 kcal in 1945 and 3100 kcal in 1975 (Bente and Gerrior, 2002). A dietary intake survey by the USDA shows a 236 kcal increase per person per day from 1987 to 1995 (Marcus and Spake, 2002).
DISCUSSION Qualifications The majority of the data for this paper comes from the U. S. Food Supply Series, the U. S. Census Bureau, the U.
S. Department of Labor and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Sources cited will show such references for this data.
Much of the literature reviewed for this paper consists of summaries, interpretations, and further studies of well-documented surveys conducted through the government. Therefore, they are judged to be valid resources, with the assumption that the surveys were, in fact, conducted using reliable and sound methods. Statistics reported from the book Fast Food Nation, by Eric Schlosser, is to be addressed with some caution, as the purpose of this book is to undermine and expose the fast food industry. However, the research conducted for that publication is understood to be considerable, and may therefore be assumed relatively reliable.
Statistics regarding obesity and related health problems came mainly from medical sources. Conclusion The twentieth century in America patterned an increase in women in the workforce, caused by or paralleled with the modernization and urbanization of the United States. The decrease in time spent on meal preparation through the century is likely related to this trend, or a result of the same process. Advances in cooking technology and technology in general allow for more jobs to be available for women and less time required for food preparation. The increased consumption of convenience foods-prepackaged and frozen foods, fast food, and restaurant food demonstrates the declining amount of time spent on meals, and this trend is concluded to be an adaptation to modernization and greater numbers of women in the workforce. This adaptation is cultural, rather than biological.
From a biological standpoint, nutrients received from foods have not changed significantly over the past 100 years. JR Bindon likewise reported adequate nutrition in the diet of children in the American Samoa, whose diet was also affected by modernization (Bindon, 1994). Goungetas and Morgan (1986) conducted a similar study of American eating habits, particularly related to eating away from home and snacking. They found that nutrient levels were not significantly affected by these factors. A study conducted by Krebs-Smith et al.
speculates that variety in food choices also lends itself towards increased availability of food nutrients (1986). However, in a study of Samoan adults, Bindon found that increasing modernization was associated with decreasing nutrient intake (Bindon, 1984). In this paper, the main biological consequences from diet alteration were related to obesity, a symptom found in both studies of Samoa (Bindon, 1984; Bindon, 1994). Obesity is a frequent cause of several significant health problems, including diabetes and cardiovascular problems.
These results, being detrimental to physical health, indicate that the trend towards convenience foods is biologically maladaptive. Suggestions for further study The effects of snacking, as discussed by Goungetas and Morgan (1986), were not examined directly in this paper, although an increase in snacking from 1900 to 2000 is assumed as part of an increase in convenience foods overall. Generally, the diet of children could be looked at in greater detail, with regards to snacking, fast food, and school-sponsored lunches. Obesity is a common problem with young Americans, and will likely continue to be so as more and more food products are marketed to children. Levels of exercise were not considered here, although they certainly relate to obesity rates.
More specifically, the impact of television on American activity level and weight gain would be an interesting area for research. Much has been published on the majority of these topics, and further study would be very possible. Works Cited Bente L, and SA Gerrior. "Selected food highlights of the 20 th century: U. S. food supply series. " Family Economics and Nutrition Review 14 (2002): 43 - 52. Bindon, JR. "An evaluation of the diet of three groups of Samoan adults: Modernization and dietary adequacy. " Ecology of Food and Nutrition 14 (1984): 105 - 115.
Bindon, JR. "Some implications of the Diet of Children in American Samoa. " Collective Anthropology 1 (1994): 7 - 15. Bowers DE. "Cooking trends echo changing roles of women. " Food Review 23 (2000): 23 - 30. Dortch S. "America weighs in. " American Demographics 6 (1997): 38 - 46. Dyson LK. "American cuisine in the 20 th century. " Food Review 23 (2000): 2 - 9. Goodman P. "Time capsule: dinners and entrees. " Frozen Food Age 51 (2002): 37. Goungetas, B, and K Morgan.
Snacking and eating away from home. In Peter F, What Is America Eating? Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986.
Krebs-Smith J, SM Krebs-Smith, and H Smiciklas -Wright. Variety in Foods. In Peter F, What Is America Eating? Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986. Marcus MB, and A Spake. "A fat nation. " U.
S. News and World Report Aug. 2002: 40. Schlosser E. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: Perennial 2002. Tillotson JE. "Our ready-prepared ready-to-eat nation. " Nutrition Today 37 (2002): 36 - 39.
U. S. Department of Labor. Employment Status of U. S.
Civilians by Age and Sex. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001
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