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Though in theory, ecological feminism has been around for a number of years, it emerged as a political movement in the 1970 s. Francoise d'Eaubonne, a French feminist philosopher, coined the term "Ecofeminist" in 1974. Ecofeminist is a feminist approach to environmental ethics. Karen Warren, in her book Ecofeminist Philosophy, claims that feminist theorists question the source of the oppression of women, and seek to eliminate this oppression. Ecofeminist's consider the oppression of women, (sexism) the oppression of other humans (racism, classism, ageism, colonialism), and the domination of nature (naturism) to be interconnected. In her book New Woman/New Earth, Rosemary Radford Reuther wrote, "Women must see that there can be no liberation for them and no solution to the ecological crisis within a society whose fundamental model of relationships continues to be one of domination.
They must unite the demands of the women's movement with those of the ecological movement to envision a radical reshaping of the basic socioeconomic relations and the underlying values of this society (204). " Ecofeminist's hold the domination of women as their focus as they see the root cause of nature domination and the domination of others as due to a patriarchal conceptual framework. Warren states that a conceptual framework is defined as "a set of basic beliefs, values, attitudes, and assumptions which shape and reflect how one views oneself and one's world. (64) " It is a "lens" through which one perceives reality and our "lens", according to the Ecofeminist, is patriarchal. Patriarchy is a "male biased", gendered institution that rejects convergence and embraces dichotomies and dualism's. Patriarchal views privilege masculine over feminine, reason over emotion, competition over cooperation and force over empathy.
The Ecofeminist believes it to be evident in our world that these aforementioned dichotomies are abetting to a world lacking in equilibrium. Because we value terms like 'progress', 'competition', as well as 'economic and technological growth' over language such as 'contemplation', 'cooperation' and 'inner growth'. Our "western" society has become a globalized world of high technology. There appears to be no ability to see beyond, to see what we have encased ourselves in; an artificial environment that has remarkably replaced the original, nature itself. We do not live with nature; we live above it, off it. I find it to be rather paradoxical that nature can exist and has existed without humans, but humans cannot exist without nature.
Nature has become merely a resource to sustain our artificial environment. I will exemplify certain dichotomies that support the aforementioned conceptual framework. Reason vs. Emotion Culture vs. Nature Scientific vs. Mystical Rational vs.
Intuitive Hierarchy vs. Circle Masculine vs. Female Ecofeminist's challenge the patriarchal conceptual framework and the accompanying dualistic thinking. Ecofeminist seeks to create a convergence between masculine entities or "energy" (rational thinking, logic, and science) and female entities (emotion, nurture, and spiritual).
Ecofeminist is inclusive and pluralistic in nature. Karen Warren states that "The goal of ecofeminist environmental ethics is to develop theories and practices concerning humans and the natural environment that are not male biased and that provide a guide to action in the pre feminist present (37) ." Warren defends her version of Ecofeminist ethics by eight features (98); the first aspect of her ethic holds that ethical theory is a "theory-in-process" as it is based on historical and conceptual frameworks (that are ever changing). Secondly, Warren claims that there can be nothing associated with an Ecofeminist ethic that endorses "sexism, racism, classism, naturism, or any other "ism" of social domination." Thirdly, an Ecofeminist ethic sees ethical discussion and practice as an emergence from entities that have their own history and identity. An Ecofeminist ethic is a narrative, or a shift from "a monist focus on absolute rights and rules to a pluralist focus on various values, principles, narrative constructions, and forms of intelligence. (99) ." Fourth, an Ecofeminist ethic reflects the diversity of perspectives of all that is oppressed or harmed from the destruction of nature. All humans and nonhuman's have moral standing.
Fifth, an Ecofeminist ethic makes a claim that in not objective. Sixth, an ecofeminist ethic provides a central place for values typically unnoticed or underplayed in traditional ethics. Warren exemplifies values of care, love, and friendship. Seventh, the Ecofeminist ethic entails a new definition of humanity. Current theories must be replaced. What it actually means to be human must be redefined and encompass our place alongside nature as opposed to above it.
Lastly, an Ecofeminist ethic embraces the convergence of "intellectual intelligence" with "emotional intelligence." There are a number of criticisms of Ecofeminist, the primary one being that it is impossible to achieve perfect harmony between a technological society and perfect adherence to an Ecofeminist ethic. Another criticism is founded in Religion. Ecofeminist would challenge notions in our "Western" religions, primarily Catholicism, that many believe are inflexible (for example, priests can only be male, and genesis preaches man's dominion over all plants and animals). Many doubt that our environmental problems are as big as Ecofeminist's, Deep Ecologists, and Environmentalist's claim. Those who deny an environmental crisis assume that money and government funding are the incentives for the aforementioned groups. I find it difficult to concur with the final criticism, however, as statistics from the Global Development Research Center show a number of environmental crises.
For example, water pollution in Uzbekistan has led to an increase in birth defects and a number of complications in pregnancy. Pesticide exposures in Central Sudan are linked to 22 percent of hospital stillbirths; air pollution in the Ukraine has been linked to 21 percent of all illnesses affecting the population. Nuclear contamination in Chelyabinsk, Russia has led to a 21 percent increase in cancer and a 25 percent increase in birth defects. Half the population of childbearing age is sterile. In the U. S. , one in every three women will be diagnosed with cancer sometime during their lives.
I think the message is clear, as Warren stated, "Nature is a feminist issue (1). " After researching Ecofeminist, I cannot help but believe that the ethics of valuing women, people, and the nonhuman world, asserting an expansive conception of knowledge that embraces science equally with the knowledge that emerges from understanding, emotion, and creativity is very needed here and now. Bibliography I. Des Jardins, Joseph R. Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy, Belmont: Wadsworth, 2001 II. Rosemary Radford Reuther, New Woman, New Earth: Sexist Ideologies and Human Liberation (New York: Seabury Press, 1975) III.
Smithson, Jayne. "Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion. " Class lectures. Anthropology 120. Diablo Valley College, San Ramon 2004. IV.
Warren, Karen J. Ecofeminist Philosophy; A Western Perspective On What It Is and Why It Matters. Lanham: Rowman, 2000 V. web VI. web
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Research essay sample on Oppression Of Women Conceptual Framework
