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Example research essay topic: Negative Emotions Coping Strategies - 1,692 words

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... d produce harm or loss. A challenge event refers to the potential for growth, mastery, or some form of gain. Lazarus argues that we cannot assess the origins of stress by looking soley at the nature of the environmental event, rather stress is a process that involves the interaction of the individual with the environment. These categories are based mostly on one's own prior experiences and learning.

Also, each of these categories generates different emotional responses. Harm / loss stressors can elicit anger, disgust, sadness, or disappointment. Threatening stressors can produce anxiety and challenging stressors can produce excitement. This theory helps to integrate both the motivational aspects of stress and the varying emotions that are associated with the experience of stress. Secondary appraisal occurs after assessment of the event as a threat or a challenge. During secondary appraisal the individual now evaluates his or her coping resources and options.

According to the theory of transactions, stress arises only when a particular transaction is appraised by the person as relevant to his or her well-being. In order for an event to be appraised as a stressor, it must be personally relevant and there must be a perceived mismatch between a situation's demands and one's resources to cope with it. Dienstbier (1989) offers a reformulation of the Transaction theory, which focuses on the emotional consequences of appraising an event as a stressor or as a challenge. He asserts that when an event is appraised as a challenge, it lead to different physiological consequences than when it is appraised as a harm / loss or threat.

Dienstbier uses the term stress to refer to transactions that lead only to negative emotions and he uses the term challenge to describe a transaction that could lead both to positive and negative emotions. A series of studies by Marianne Frankenhaeuser (1986) and colleagues provide some support for Dienstbier's assertion that a stressor evaluated as a challenge should be viewed more positively than a harm / loss or threat event. According to Frankenhaeuser, physiological reactions to stressors depend on two factors: effort and distress. She found that there are three categories of physiological responses to stress. Effort with distress leads to increases of both catecholamine and cortisol secretion and result from daily hassles. These stressors are experienced as negative emotions.

This category corresponds to Dienstbier's characterization of the negative emotions present in an event appraised as a harm / loss or as a threat. Effort without distress leads to an increase of catecholamine and suppression of cortisol secretion. These stressors are experienced as positive emotions. This category corresponds to Dienstbier's characterization of the positive emotions present in events appraised as challenging. Distress without effort leads to increased cortisol secretion but not necessarily to catecholamine secretion. This is the pattern often found in depressed individuals.

Traditionally, stress research has been oriented toward studies involving the body's reaction to stressors (a physiological perspective) and the cognitive processes that appraise the event or situation as a stressor (a cognitive perspective). However, current social perspectives of the stress response have noted that different people experiencing similar life conditions are not necessarily affected in the same manner. There is a growing interest in the epidemiology of diseases thought to result from stress. It has been noted that the incidence of hypertension, cardiovascular ailments, and depression varies with such factors as race, sex, marital status, and income. This kind of socioeconomic variation of disease indicates that the stressors that presumably dispose people toward these illnesses are somehow linked to the conditions that people confront as they occupy their various positions and status's in the society. Pearlin (1982) observes that individuals' coping strategies are primarily social in nature.

The manner in which people attempt to avoid or resolve stressful situations, the cognitive strategies that they use to reduce threat, and the techniques for managing tensions are largely learned from the groups to which they belong. Although the coping strategies used by individuals are often distinct, coping dispositions are to a large extent acquired from the social environment. The orientation toward stress research is changing as awareness of the social and cultural contexts involved in stress and coping are examined. The bio psychosocial model of stress incorporates a variety of social factors into its model that influence stress reaction and perception. However, research into the cultural differences that may exist in stress reactions are also needed to examine how various social and cultural structures influence the individual's experience of stress. Culture and society may shape what events are perceived as stressful, what coping strategies are acceptable to use in a particular society, and what institutional mechanisms we may turn to for assistance (Fumiko Naughton, personal communication).

Pearlin (1982) suggests that society, its value systems, the stratified ordering of its populations, the organization of its institutions, and the rapidity and extent of changes in these elements can be sources of stress. For example, Merton (1957) suggests that society can elicit stress by promoting values that conflict with the structures in which they are acted upon. Merton argues that the system of values in the United States promotes attainment of monetary and honorable success among more people than could be accommodated by the opportunity structures available. As a consequence, many of those individuals who internalize these culturally prized goals are doomed to failure. As researchers incorporate a social-cultural perspective to stress research, the definitions of stress, which currently incorporate the physiological and cognitive components of stress, need to be re-examined and re-defined to reflect both social and cultural differences.

These social and cultural differences may increase our knowledge about stress and how stress can be effectively managed given the constraints imposed upon the individual by the existing values in a particular culture. A re-definition of stress, that would reflect cultural mediation in the experience of stress, might be that 'stress is a set of neurological and physiological reactions that serve an adaptive function in the environmental, social, and cultural values and structures within which the individual acts upon. ' Resources on the World Wide Web The Different Kinds of Stress This Web site provides information on the characteristics of three different types of stress: Acute, Episodic, and Chronic stress. The information is adapted from The Stress Solution by Lyle H. Miller and Dell Smith. The authors point out that stress management is complicated by the fact that there different types of stress that have their own characteristics, duration and treatment approaches.

The different types of stress and their impact on health is discussed. The American Institute of Stress This Web site is a non-profit organization that serves as a clearing house for information on stress related subjects. The Board of Trustees includes physicians and health professionals with expertise in various stress related subjects. Among the founders of the AIS were Hans Selye and Norman Cousins. They maintain a large library of information on stress related topics. The Stress Axis at Work: How the body copes with life's changes This Web site provides information on the stress axis involving the neurological and physiological reactions of stress.

It is taken from an article in Research News, 1995. Plain Talk About Stress This Web site discusses how a certain amount of stress is necessary and beneficial. Suggestions are provided on how to manage stress so that it can be used in a positive way and prevent it from becoming distress. S. T. A.

R. : Stress and Anxiety Research Society The STAR organization is a multidisciplinary, international organization of researchers who exchange research findings and clinical applications on a wide range of stress and anxiety related phenomena. Bibliography Admin, C. M. , ed. (1993). Stress, Coping and Development: An integrative perspective. New York: Guildford.

Bernard, L. C. , & Krupat, E. (1994). Health Psychology: Biopsychosocial Factors in Health and Illness. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Cannon, W. B. (1932). The Wisdom of the Body. New York: Norton. Dienstbier, R. A. (1989).

Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96: 84 - 100. Emmons, R. A. , & King, L. A. (1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54: 1040 - 1048. Franken, R. E. (1994). Human Motivation, 3 rd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Frankenhaeuser, M. (1986).

A psychobiological framework for research on human stress and coping. In M. H. Apply and R. Trumbull, eds. Dynamics of stress: Physiological, psychological, and social perspectives.

New York: Plenum. Friday, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotions. American Psychologist, 43: 349 - 353. Holroyd, K.

A. , & Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Stress, coping, and somatic adaptation. In L.

Goldberger and S. Breznitz, eds. Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. New York: The Free Press. Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1984).

Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Guilford. Lazarus, R. S. , & Lanier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In L.

A. Person & M. Lewis, eds. Perspectives in International Psychology. New York: Plenum. Manager, G. (1982).

Stress and Though Processes. In L. Goldberger and S. Breznitz, eds.

Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. New York: The Free Press. Merton, R. K. (1957). Social structure and anomie.

In R. K. Merton, ed. Social Theory and Social Structure, 2 nd ed.

New York: Free Press. Pearlin, L. I. (1982). The social contexts of stress. In L.

Goldberger and S. Breznitz, eds. Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. New York: The Free Press. Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life.

New York: McGraw-Hill. Selye, H. (1976). Stress in health and disease. Reading, MA: Butterworth. Selye, H. (1982). History and present status of the stress concept.

In L. Goldberger and S. Breznitz, eds. Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects.

New York: The Free Press. Selye, H. (1985). History and present status of the stress concept. In A. Most & R. S.

Lazarus, eds. Stress and Coping, 2 nd ed. New York: Columbia University. Zakowski, S. , Hall, M.

H. & Baum, A. (1992). Stress, stress management, and the immune system. Applied and Preventative Psychology, 1: 1 - 13.


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