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Example research essay topic: Life Liberty And Property Isaac Newton - 1,052 words

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... red, was given increasing validity. In addition, Galileo was the first to observe that Venus, like the moon, went through a regular series of phases. This discoveries that Galileo was making cast new light on the assertions of Copernicus, and destined him for trouble with the Church.

In 1611, Galileo traveled to Rome and to meet with the senior Jesuit astronomers. In all probability, Galileo foresaw the coming storm, and felt that the Jesuits offered him the best possible shelter. Father Clavius, author of Gregorian Calendar and undisputed leader of Jesuit astronomy had a hard time believing there were mountains on the moon, but he surrendered with good grace on looking through the telescope. Another confrontation with Church authorities occurred in 1613, when Galileo published his observations of sunspots.

Jesuit astronomers asserted that these were small objects surrounding the sun, but Galileo correctly surmised they were actually on the sun's surface. The doctrine of perfectly incorruptible heavenly bodies suffered another blow, and the response of the Church was quick and thorough. In 1616, the Copernican System was condemned. The fundamental premise of the Reformation was that individual Christians were free to interpret the Bible without interference from a Church hierarchy. The Catholic Church maintained that the interpretation of the Bible was set by Church tradition. Should a compromise be made for Copernicus, Rome maintained that it would be used for leverage by the Protestants.

If one reinterpretation could be made, how could the Church logically contend against wholesale reinterpretations? For the next sixteen years Galileo continued, albeit in a somewhat subdued fashion, to continue his investigations. Galileo was searching for some real proof that the earth was moving, and he eventually concluded that the evidence he was seeking could be found in the tides. Why should all the water on the surface of the earth slosh around once or twice a day?

Galileo decided it was because the earth was both rotating and moving around the sun, so for a given place on earth, its speed varies throughout the day, depending on whether its speed from the daily rotation is in the same direction as its speed from the earth's moving around the sun. This constant speeding up and slowing down is what Galileo thought generated the tides, so the tides were proof the earth was moving! (In reality, this is not a good argument-the tides are actually generated by the gravity of the moon. ) Galileo publish his finding, entitled Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World in 1632 and immediately brought down the wrath of the Inquisition. At the trial, Galileo was forced to recant his heretical position, though with the tenacity of a true academic he is reputed to have muttered rather quietly "E pur si more, " ("It [the earth] still moves"). Though less than Luther's bold "Here I stand, " it was still a defiance of traditional authority in the pursuit of new truth. NEWTON (1642 -- 1727) Copernicus had established the helio-centric nature of the solar system, and Kepler had concluded that the orbits of the planets were elliptical rather than circular, yet no one had venture forth a theory on why the planets moved in the manner they did. Isaac Newton, who was born in England in the year Galileo died, was destined to solve the problem of planetary motion, as well as devise a theory of physics that would endure until Einstein developed the theory of relativity.

Proceeding from Kepler's assertion that the universe was a great mechanism, and the workings of the mechanism could be explained mathematically, Newton posited his single most significant contribution: The Law of Gravity. Briefly stated, the law of Gravity asserts that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object with a force that is directly proportionate to the product of their masses and inversely proportionate to the square of the distances between them. The law of gravity effectively explained why the universe did not fly apart. Three further laws were needed to explain the intricate motion that takes place in a universe governed by so powerful a force. The first of these is known as the law of inertia, and it asserts that every object continues in a state of rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force. The second asserts that the rate of change in the motion of an object is directly proportionate to the force acting upon it.

The third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The law of gravity, combined with the three laws of motion, provided for the emergence of a complete cosmology based on mathematical principles, and the publication of Newton's Principia Mathematica, or The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1687 effectively closed the book on the medieval world-view. JOHN LOCKE (1632 - 1704) The foundations of the modern social sciences were laid when John Locke attempted to follow Newton's system ization of the natural world and present a systematized the understanding of the human mind. In his seminal work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke argued that at birth the human mind was a tabla rasa, or "blank slate. " There were no innate ideas, and everything that is written on this "blank slate" is the product of sensory input.

The mind of the individual emerges as it confronts the external world. Here, again, was a fundamental challenge to traditional authority. In essence, Locke was dismissing the doctrine of original sin. Human beings were endowed with the ability to alter their own destinies. Locke proceeded to attack both the divine right of Kings and the Machiavellian concept of power politics in his Two Treatises of Government. Here Locke argued that individual possess a God-given right to security in their life, liberty, and property.

To secure these ends, political agreement are made in which rulers are empowered to protect that life, liberty, and property. Should a ruler prove unworthy of that trust, he could be removed from power and replaced. Here the foundation of American individualism was established, and the philosophical groundwork of our own Declaration of Independence was laid. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY INTELLECTUAL GIANTS COPERNICUS TYCHO BRAHE JOHANN KEPLER GALILEO ISAAC NEWTON JOHN LOCKE


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Research essay sample on Life Liberty And Property Isaac Newton

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