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Childhood is the culturally defined period in human development between infancy and adulthood. In a historical perspective, this is a relatively new social construction. Early childhood, as an especially important super period of childhood, most often refers to the months and years between infancy and school age children (Corsini 345). To understand why childhood is such a crucial time in human life it is important to study the development before and after birth along with any factors that may alter life in between. Heredity is the transmission of characteristics for parents to offspring through genes. Genes are information carriers.
There are two types of genes, dominant and recessive. Dominant genes will emerge each time they are present. A recessive gene will only appear when paired with another recessive gene (Coon 88 - 89). These genes make each person unique. They determine what color hair and eyes you will have, your body type, and possible even your personality. A problem can take place in any pregnancy.
Such problems can be caused by fate or by fault. Genetic problems are cause by a natural defect in the genes, which are inherited by the offspring's parents (Coon 88 - 93). These defects can result in a number of diseases. Cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell anemia are examples of this type of abnormalities (Shell 522 - 523). It can be said that genetics is all a roll of the dice. Fortunately, through modern science, many of these defects can be diagnosed through prenatal testing.
The invention and use of the ultrasound has made obstetrics a more precise science pregnancy a much less worrisome experience. In fact, ultrasounds have become so common that they are now used in ninety percent of pregnancies today. It is so common because it allows visualization of the fetus without the hazards of x-ray. Ultrasound works through the use of sound waves. Sound waves are bounced off internal structures and can be viewed with a TV-like viewing screen. The second most common test is maternal blood screening.
This test is used to determine whether an amniocentesis is needed. During an amniocentesis amniotic fluid that surrounds a fetus is extracted and examined. Because amniotic fluid contains fetal cells, chemicals, and microorganisms it provides a wide range of information- genetic makeup, present condition, and the level of maturity of the growing baby (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 44 - 51). There are many other tests that are not so common and much more complex. Some of these tests are fetoscope, maternal- serum and alpha- fetoprotein screening, chronic villus sampling, fetal skin sampling, and percutaneous umbilical cord sampling (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 52). Unfortunately, all these tests are predictors.
A reasonable treatment depends on the type of defect. Unnatural substances called teratogens also can have a harmful effect on the growing fetus (Coon 93). Drugs and alcohol are some of these damaging elements. Fetal alcohol syndrome (F. A. S. ) is a common result of the repeated use of alcohol during pregnancy (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Youre Expecting 53).
Some of the effects of F. A. S. are premature births, low birth weighs, facial malformations, bodily defects, and mental retardation, but these defects are preventable (Coon 94).
The sooner a heavy drinker stops drinking during pregnancy, the less risk. Help can be found through Alcoholics Anonymous, a certified alcohol counselor or physician, or an alcohol treatment program (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Youre Expecting 53 - 54). Smoking while pregnant, particularly after the fourth month, is hazardous. It results in carbon monoxide poisoning and a reduction of oxygen to the fetus. Potential risks include low birth-weight, SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), and apnea (breathing lapses) Smoking during pregnancy has been linked to some 115, 000 miscarriages and 5, 600 infant deaths a year (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 54 - 55). After conception, growth begins at a rapid rate.
By the end of the first month of life the embryo is smaller than a grain of sand and has begin to develop a heart, digestive tract, sensory organs, and arm and leg buds. In the second month the embryos heart begins to beat. Bone has also started to take the place of cartilage. At the end of the third month the developing baby is now called a fetus. When the fourth month ends, the fetus is about four inches long and is being nourished by the placenta.
Reflexes, such as sucking and swallowing have also developed. Movement by the fetus is strong enough to be felt by the mother in the fifth month. Finger and toe prints are visible by the end of the sixth month. The eyes begin to open at this time too.
By the end of the seventh month, fat begins to deposit on the fetus. It may suck its thumb, hiccup, cry, and respond to stimuli. There is good chance that the fetus may survive if born now. After the end of eight months, the baby is about eighteen inches long and weighs about five pounds. Growth, especially of the brain, is great at this time. Most systems are well developed, but the lungs may still be immature.
In the ninth month final preparations are being made for birth (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Youre Expecting 101 - 270). It takes nine months to create a baby, and only a matter of hours to bring one into the world. Yet it is those hours that seem to occupy the minds of most expectant parents. Fortunately, parents have more options in childbirth today than ever before.
With the exception of certain emergency situations, the decision of whether or not to have medication during labor and delivery can be solely left up to the awaiting parents. A conventional delivery takes places in hospital delivery room. Pain medications are given to ease pain while a physician assists in the delivery process (Coon 94). Analgesics, tranquilizers, and regional nerve blocks are the three most commonly used pain relievers. Meperidine hydrochloride, a powerful pain reliever often known as Demerol, is one of the most frequently used obstetrical analgesics.
Tranquilizers are used to calm and relax. They go by names such as Phenergan and Vistaril. The most popular regional nerve block today is the epidural. The major reason for its popularity is that its use is relatively safe (less drug is needed to achieve the desired effect).
The drug (usually bupivacaine, lidocaine, or chloro procaine) is administered as needed during labor and/ or delivery, through a fine needle that is inserted the back. After this process is completed the woman will feel numb, usually from the waist down (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Youre Expecting 228 - 231). These pain relievers can also have poor side effects on mother and child. Mothers may be drowsiness and unable to push. The baby may be sleepy and unable to suck; less frequently, respiration may be depressed and an oxygen supplement may be needed. At times, there may be a complication that prevents a baby from being born vaginally.
In such cases a cesarean section may be needed. During this major surgery an epidural or general anesthesia will be needed. To avoid these side-effects parents may opt to use other pain relief techniques, such as Lamaze. Lamaze is the most commonly used technique in prepared childbirth. It was developed by Ferdinand Lamaze.
It teaches relaxation techniques that typically minimize pain and shorten labor. However, it is more important that parents have a pleasant attitude and are emotional involved in the birth of their child (Coon 95). Most first-time parents are unprepared for the appearance of the bundle of joy that is handed to them after delivery. The typical newborn often has a battered look, a head that looks too large for its body. A newborns eyes may appear squinty and swollen. Because of an infusion of female hormones from the placenta just before birth, many babies, both boys and girls, have swollen breasts and genitals.
There may even be a milky discharge from the breasts (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect the First Year 46). At birth, newborns also display a number of reflexes. These reflexes are the Moro, Babinski, rooting, palmar grasping, walking, and the tonic neck reflex. The Moro reflex, also know as the startle reflex, can be seen when an infant is surprised by a loud noise and extends its arms and legs as it was falling. Babinski reflex is displayed when the sole of the foot is gently stroked from heel to toe, the toes flare upward and foot turns inward. Rooting reflex helps infants find nourishment and can be seen when a newborns cheek is gently stroked and then turns in the direction of the stimulus, mouth open and ready to suckle.
The walking, or stepping reflex, is noticeable when a newborn is held upright on a flat surface, supported under the arms, will appear to...
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Research essay sample on Amniotic Fluid Sound Waves
