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Example research essay topic: Cuban Missile Crisis U S S R - 2,004 words

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... R. was putting down unrest in its Eastern European satellites, trouble was stirring in the Middle East. The United States feared Communist expansion in that area.

Both the U. S. S. R. and the West sought Egypt's support by offering aid for its development plans. Each side offered to help build the Aswan High Dam.

After Egypt courted Communist aid for the dam and bought Communist arms, the United States and the United Kingdom canceled offers to help with the project. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt struck back by seizing the Suez Canal from international control. He said Egypt would use profits from operating the canal to build the dam "without pressure from any nation. " But he did accept Soviet aid. In October 1956, while the U.

S. S. R. was involved with the Hungarian revolt, Israel invaded Egypt. The United Kingdom and France immediately joined in the attack. They wanted to return the Suez Canal to international control.

The United States and the U. S. S. R.

supported a United Nations resolution demanding an immediate truce. In addition, the U. S. S. R. threatened to send troops to help Egypt.

The UN arranged a truce after a few days of fighting. But the U. S. S. R. , by backing Egypt against Israel, had won friends among the Arab nations of the Middle East.

New challenges Khrushchev's power in the Soviet Union reached its peak in the late 1950 's. Sometimes the U. S. S.

R. followed a hard policy, mainly in response to China's challenge to Soviet leadership of the Communist bloc. At other times, the U. S. S. R.

stressed peaceful coexistence, giving special attention to economic aid and scientific progress. But the Soviet Union continued to encourage "wars of liberation. " As a result, the United States came to regard "peaceful coexistence" as the Communist effort to conquer countries without a major war. The missile gap. The U. S.

S. R. improved its ability to produce nuclear weapons, and the Western bloc feared a missile gap, or Soviet rocket superiority. In June 1957, the U.

S. S. R. successfully tested an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). That same year, the U. S.

S. R. launched the first artificial earth satellite, Sputnik 1. In January 1958, the United States launched its first earth satellite. Soviet rocket power was more advanced, but the two powers had clearly established a nuclear "balance of terror. " A brief thaw in the Cold War followed. The U.

S. S. R. stopped testing nuclear weapons in March 1958, and the United States halted its tests in October. The Eisenhower Doctrine was approved by Congress in March 1957 because the United States feared Communist penetration in the Middle East. This policy permitted the president to "use armed force to assist any...

nation... [in the Middle East] requesting assistance against armed aggression from any country controlled by international Communism. " In July 1958, a revolution ended the rule of the pro-Western government of Iraq. Nearby Lebanon feared a Communist revolution and asked the United States for aid. Eisenhower quickly sent about 6, 000 sailors and marines to help Lebanon. The United Kingdom sent paratroopers to protect Jordan against Iraqi pressure. In spite of Soviet protests, the American and British forces stayed in the Middle East for about three months. The Far East.

In 1958, the Chinese Communists again fired on Quemoy and Matsu, Taiwan's offshore islands. Dulles warned that any attack on these islands would be considered aggression against Nationalist China, a U. S. ally.

But occasional firing continued during the 1960 's. Germany. During the late 1950 's, Europe remained the most important Cold War battleground. The U. S. S.

R. tried repeatedly to damage the reputation of the West in Germany. In November 1958, the U. S. S.

R. demanded peace treaties for East and West Germany. Such treaties would have ended the military occupation, and Western troops would have had to leave. The United States refused to yield to the demand, and kept its forces in Berlin. As a result, the U. S.

S. R. kept threatening to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany. The spirit of Camp David. Another temporary thaw in the Cold War began in the spring of 1959.

The foreign ministers of the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the U. S. S. R. met in May. In July, Vice President Richard M.

Nixon visited the U. S. S. R.

and met with Khrushchev. Two months later, Khrushchev visited the United States. He conferred with Eisenhower at Camp David in Maryland. Khrushchev was so friendly that observers spoke of the "spirit of Camp David, " recalling the earlier "spirit of Geneva. " Eisenhower and Khrushchev discussed a summit (top-level) conference to be held in Paris in 1960. The president accepted Khrushchev's invitation to visit the Soviet Union after the summit meeting. The U- 2 incident abruptly ended the thaw.

An American U- 2 spy plane was shot down in the U. S. S. R. in May 1960.

The Soviet Union captured the pilot, Francis Gary Powers, who confessed he was a spy. Eisenhower accepted personal responsibility for the flight. He admitted that U- 2 planes had been flying over the U. S. S. R.

taking photographs for four years. When the summit conference began on May 15, Khrushchev demanded that Eisenhower apologize for the U- 2 incident. Eisenhower refused, and Khrushchev angrily canceled his invitation for the president to visit the U. S. S. R.

Africa. The Cold War struggle moved to Africa in July 1960. Premier Patrice Lumumba of the Congo asked the UN to deal with a revolt in his newly independent nation. He charged that the Belgians were aiding the rebel Katangans. The U. S.

S. R. sided with Lumumba against a group led by Congolese President Joseph Kasavubu. The UN intervened in the dispute, keeping the U. S. S.

R. and the West from direct military action. The Soviet Union charged that the UN favored the West. The troika proposal. In September 1960, Khrushchev went to New York City for the meeting of the UN General Assembly.

He again criticized the United States for the U- 2 flights. The Soviet leader showed his anger by taking off a shoe and pounding his desk with it. Khrushchev tried to destroy the power of the UN to send troops into trouble spots. He called for three secretaries-general troika (a Russian term for a vehicle drawn by three horses) to replace the UN secretary-general. One of the secretaries-general would be a Communist, one from a neutral nation, and one from the West.

The General Assembly defeated the proposal. The Bay of Pigs. John F. Kennedy became president of the United States in January 1961. Cold War tensions were high Europe, in Asia, and even on the doorstep of the United States, in Cuba. The Cuban government of Fidel Castro became increasingly Communist in 1961.

Castro condemned the United States and began to receive military aid from the Soviet Union and other Communist countries. The Cuban government seized millions of dollars' worth of American property in Cuba. The United States ended diplomatic relations with Cuba in January 1961. In April 1961, the United States sponsored an invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro Cubans at the Bay of Pigs. The attack was poorly planned and failed badly. The unsuccessful invasion strengthened Castro's control of Cuba, and it caused the United States to lose face.

The Berlin Wall. Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Vienna, Austria, in June 1961. Khrushchev demanded a free Berlin and an end of the military occupation. The two leaders failed to reach agreement, and Khrushchev again threatened to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany. In July 1961, the U. S.

S. R. canceled cuts in its armed forces and increased military spending. Berlin Wall Growing numbers of East Germans were fleeing to West Germany. On Aug. 13, 1961, the East German Communists began to build a wall of cement and barbed wire between East and West Berlin. To confirm the right of the Western powers to remain in West Berlin, the United States sent troops to the city by highway.

U. S. tanks enforced Western rights to enter East Berlin without showing papers to Communist border guards. Some East Germans escaped to West Berlin after the wall was built, but many were killed in the attempt. See Berlin Wall. The space race begins.

On Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. Several months later, on Jan. 31, 1958, the United States launched its first satellite, Explorer 1. In 1961, the two countries each launched their first manned spacecraft. In September 1961, the U. S. S.

R. ignored an unofficial agreement against nuclear weapons tests, and resumed nuclear bomb testing in the atmosphere. The United States then resumed underground testing. American tests above ground were started again in April 1962. The Cuban missile crisis. In October 1962, the United States learned that the U.

S. S. R. had secretly installed missiles and missile bases in Cuba, about 90 miles (140 kilometers) from Florida.

President Kennedy demanded that the U. S. S. R. remove them. He set up naval "quarantine" of Cuba.

The U. S. S. R. said that it would not remove the missiles unless the United States promised not to invade Cuba and removed its nuclear missiles from Turkey.

Kennedy privately agreed to the first proposal and publicly agreed to the second. After a week of extreme tension, Khrushchev removed the Soviet missiles. See Cuban missile crisis. Easing Cold War tensions After the missile crisis in Cuba, Cold War tensions again eased.

In July 1963, the United States, the U. S. S. R. , and the United Kingdom approved a treaty to stop the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water. In August, the United States and the U. S.

S. R. set up a hot line between the White House and the Kremlin. This direct communications link was installed to reduce the risk of accidental nuclear war.

In 1963, the U. S. S. R.

faced a serious shortage of grain. Kennedy approved a plan to sell the U. S. S.

R. $ 250 million worth of American wheat. That same year, the two nations agreed to cooperate in space projects using weather and communications satellites. President Lyndon B. Johnson, who became chief executive after Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, continued to work for peaceful coexistence. In 1964, the United States and the U.

S. S. R. signed their first bilateral (two-nation) treaty. It provided that a consul (representative) of each nation would have an office in a city of the other country. It also provided protection for Americans traveling in the U.

S. S. R. and for Soviet citizens traveling in the United States. The U. S.

Senate approved the treaty in 1967, and the U. S. S. R. approved it in 1968. The two nations also extended an agreement for educational, scientific, and cultural exchanges.

The shifting Cold War battleground The character of the Cold War changed again in the mid- 1960 's. The United States and the U. S. S. R. each had large numbers of nuclear weapons.

Each had an antimissile defense system. But both powers realized that there would be no victor in an all-out nuclear war. Also, conflicts within both the Eastern and Western blocs changed the two-sided nature of the balance of power. The great blocs split. Following the Soviet Union's destalinization campaign, the U. S.

S. R. and Communist China began to move along different paths. In 1960, at the third Congress of the Romanian Communist Party, the U.

S. S. R. and China quarreled bitterly and openly. The Soviet Union soon cut off technical aid to China. When China attacked India in 1962, the U.

S. S. R. supported India.

The Soviet Union again backed India when Pakistan and India fought...


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Research essay sample on Cuban Missile Crisis U S S R

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