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Example research essay topic: History Of The Human Genome Project - 1,310 words

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... ene. Since the bases constitute the code letters, which direct what amino acids are incorporated in to a protein, changes in the bases of DNA often result in substantial changes of protein function. Sequencing Many of the bases in DNA do not code for any protein and are not part of genetic information. Most of the DNA in the human genome does not seem to have any function and is referred to as junk DNA.

In fact, it is often said looking for genes is like trying to find a needle in a haystack. The first step is to determine the human genome sequence and find genes. Knowing the bases that make up a gene and where it's located on a chromosome doesnt tell you what the gene does, says Linda Ashworth, a Lawrence Livermore biomedical scientist working in the Laboratory's Human Genome Center. She continues, after sequencing, we still need to determine what proteins the genes produce, and what those proteins do in the cell. Then, scientists need to know the structure and function of the protein produced by the gene and how that protein interacts in its environment.

Ashworth describes the sequence as the detailed map we need to help us find the buried treasure. While mapping chromosomes, scientists use markers to locate different genes. To figure out what chromosome the gene is on, probes highlight the chromosome and the general location of the gene. Then, scientists cut out pieces of the chromosome with special enzymes. With these pieces, scientists clone hundreds of copies of these fragments and sequence the DNA to find recognizable DNA markers and look for places where the fragments share some of the same markers. When researchers wish to sequence a fragment, they run four nearly identical reactions using that DNA as a template, in which the four bases are labeled with different fluorescent dyes.

The DOE uses two major sequencing machines, the Perkin-Elmer 3700 and the Megabace DNA sequencers. The Perkin-Elmer 377 DNA sequencer is also used for much of the sequencing. The use of fluorescent dyes increases both the safety of and ability to sequence DNA quickly and efficiently. For amplification of DNA, the most commonly used sequencer is the Bacterial Artificial Chromosome, or BAC.

A single run of a Megabace DNA sequencer involves 96 channels or lanes of DNA sequencing, which is nearly 500 individual sub-units or bases of DNA sequence. In March 2000, the Production Sequencing Facility (PSF) ran 1, 800, 000 lanes of DNA and 84 % of the information was found useful, showing a great increase in the efficiency. Shotgun sequencing, a method used to cut DNA into hundreds or thousands of random bits with enzymes, is used in todays automated sequencing machines. These machines decipher relatively shorts fragments about 500 bases long, but it is faster and cheaper than previously done. Computers piece the sequenced fragments like a puzzle to come up with the original genome.

The shotgun approach is applied to previously mapped cloned DNA fragments, so it is known exactly where they are located on the genome, making assembly easier and more accurate. The accuracy rate of the HGP is ensured at 99. 99 % or better. However, the 0. 01 % allows for 3. 2 million mistakes to be made. To ensure the highest accuracy possible, coverage of no more than 1 gap per 200 kb is sought after. With this, two categories of error will be considered: small-scale sequencing errors and large-scale structural errors. Small-scale sequencing errors are localized discrepancies between the DNA template and the sequence.

These errors can be corrected through PCR amplification and re-sequencing. Large-scale structural errors are due to mapping problems (false joins or gaps), clonal aberrations (chimeras, deletions, co-ligation's, or transposon's), sequence assembly problems (false joins, gaps, or sequences assembled in the wrong orientation). Large-scale structural errors have a more serious impact than small-scale sequencing errors because the correct sequence is difficult to obtain in laboratories without the resources of a genome center. Today, the speed has increased tremendously and the costs are extremely lower from when the program began. It took the International Human Genome Project 4 years to produce the first billion base pairs and less than 4 months to produce the second billion base pairs.

Today, approximately 20 million bases are sequenced and deposited in the public database each day, compared to 20 million bases during the entire year of 1997. The amount of sequencing done in 8 days today is equal to the amount done during the whole year of 1998. The costs have dropped from over $ 2 to less than 10 cents per finished base over the past two years. Although there is less staff and costs involved now, the HGP is advancing more than 30 times faster than it did during the first year of its operation.

Next Steps Knowing the complete genetic makeup of a human or any other organism will radically change the face of science. When the complete DNA sequence becomes available to the public, it will revolutionize the way people use science. DNA sequencing results will help to analyze genetic variability to understand genetic differences and susceptibility to disease, gene regulation, understanding human evolution and discovering new genes to help diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Genetic information can be applied in agriculture and food to create more efficient breeding and improve biomass-based energy systems. The information obtained will lead to the understanding of the laws, principles, and logic that govern how a living organism functions. Although the HGP will provide the essential genetic makeup for a human it only comprises of 1 % of the DNA sequencing that will be done in the next 5 years.

DNA analysis will be performed with samples from microbes, mice, and other organisms. DOE will continue to create faster and cheaper means of DNA sequencing and analysis. Finally, all the information obtained will be stored in computer databases that will require sophisticated computational tools and resources. By studying similarities and differences in DNA sequences across species, we will begin to understand the real understanding of the biology of life. References Cited: 1. Arms, Karen and Camp, Pamela S.

Biology. Fourth edition. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1995. 2. Hayes, Brian. Computing Science: The Invention of the Genetic Code. American Scientist.

Online. Internet. January-February 1998. Available: < web 3. National Human Genome Research Institute, Division of Extramural Research. The Human Genome Project.

Online. Internet. February 9, 2000. Available: < web 4. United States Department of Energy. DOE Investments that Made the Human Genome Project Possible, Reduced its Costs, Sped it up, etc.

Online. Internet. April 13, 2000. Available. < web res/DOEInvestmentsFS. pdf> 5. United States Department of Energy.

DNA Sequencing: The Next Step in the Search for Genes. Online. Internet. February 19, 1999. Available: < web 6.

United States Department of Energy. Next Steps in the Human Genome Project. Online. Internet. April 13, 2000. Available: < web res/NEXTSTstep.

pdf> 7. United States Department of Energy. Prepared Remarks for Energy Secretary Bill Richardson. Press Release.

Online. Internet. April 13, 2000. Available: < web res / press . pdf> 8. United States Department of Energy.

Research & Development At US DOE National Labs. Sept 1997. 9. United States Department of Energy. To Know Ourselves: The Department of Energy and the Human Genome Project.

July 1996: p. 4 - 5. 10. United States Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research. A Vital Legacy: Biological and Environmental Research in the Atomic Age. September 1997: p. 15 - 16. 11. United States Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Human Genome Program. The Science Behind the Human Genome Project: Understanding the Basics and How the HGP is Implemented.

Online. Internet. Tuesday, March 28, 2000. Available: < web 12. Voet, D. and Voet, J.

Biochemistry. Second Edition. Copyright 1995. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York.


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Research essay sample on History Of The Human Genome Project

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