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Example research essay topic: 2 H 2 O Creatine Phosphate - 1,714 words

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With the aid of diagrams provide a summary of how the following energy systems work. Energy systems; introduction Energy systems are cellular levels processes used to produce Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) figure 1. This is an adenosine molecule linked to three high-energy phosphates that acts as an energy store for the cell. The energy is released when ATPase, an enzyme, reacts with ATP to produce ADP and Pi, e. g. ATP ADP + Pi There are three energy systems that do this; The Creatine Phosphate System The Glycolytic or Lactic Acid system The Oxidative system (The Krebs cycle, Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) The first too are ANAEROBIC, the third is AEROBIC.

I. Creatine Phosphate (CrP) Summary: A cytoplasm based catabolic reaction in which Creatine Phosphate is degraded to Creatine to provide ATP; net profit of one ATP molecule; can proceed anaerobically. Net reaction: CrP + ADP+H gt; ATP + Creatine Detail: During high-intensity exercise energy for ATP resynthesis is provided primarily by another high-energy phosphate compound called creatine phosphate (CrP), see figure 2. Cellular concentrations of CrP are 4 - 5 times greater than that of ATP and are generally concentrated in areas of contractile protein; skeletal muscle has 95 %. CrP is like a match; when the muscle receives a nerve impulse from the brain instructing it to contract, it instantly releases its energy, as if the match had been struck. This gives a natural "reservoir" of energy to enable resynthesis of ATP to occur rapidly, 7 Toler (1997), 8 Vandenberg he (1996) and 9 Feldman (1999), but it can only sustain work at maximal levels for about 5 - 15 seconds dependant on activity level and the individual's personal physiological adaptations to exercise.

The system has two steps. Firstly, bond between creatine and phosphate splits energy is liberated, as CrP has a higher potential energy than ATP, sufficient energy is released to resynthesis e ADP to ATP. This reaction is catalyst by the enzyme creatine kinase. CrP Cr + Pi + energy The energy created in the split's useless to the cell directly; so in step two it's used to convert ADP and Phosphate to ATP and thus a source of useable energy to the cell. The process of ATP-CrP regeneration is the most rapid pathway for providing muscular energy. Energy ADP + Pi gt; ATP This is a 1: 1 ratio in that one Creatine phosphate delivers one ATP molecule.

This is not a very efficient system but it's very fast; the chemical name for Creatine is N- (aminoiminomethyl) -N-methyl glycine or methylglycocyamine, figure 3. It's synthesized in the liver, pancreas, and kidney from the three amino acids - L-Arginine, Glycine and L-Methionine. Following its biosynthesis, creatine is transported to the skeletal muscles, heart, brain, and other tissues where it's phosphorylated (the red area in figure 3) and stored. This allows the muscle cells to have about a 15 second energy source on tap that does not require oxygen to be used, during maximal exercise. Very fast sports, e. g.

the 100 m sprint, powerlifting, are based almost totally on this energy system, (see table 2 page 13). II. Glycolysis - the Lactic Acid System. Summary: A series of cytoplasm based catabolic reactions in which glucose is degraded to pyruvate (pyrrhic acid) to provide ATP and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) as well as molecules for the anabolic pathways; net profit of two ATP molecules; hydrogen is released; can proceed anaerobically. Net reaction: Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2 NAD gt; 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H 2 O Detail: Glycolysis, also called the Emden-Myerhoff pathway, is the sequence of reactions, which converts a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules with the production of NADH and ATP. Specific enzymes control each of the different reactions, as shown in figure 5.

Glucose comes either directly from digestion, or from short-term storage in the muscles or long-term storage in the liver. There is a net gain of two (2) ATP at the end of glycolysis (reaction shown above), using glucose as the source and three (3) from glycogen. This is because glucose needs to be converted to glucose 6 -phosphate to enter the glycolysis pathway that requires the use of one ATP, (see figure 4). All the reactions of glycolysis take place entirely in the cytosol due to the abundance of free-floating ingredients such as ADP, NAD+, and inorganic phosphates.

Glycolysis itself does not require oxygen and can proceed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Glycolysis can generally be divided into two main phases. Phase one encompasses the first four steps of glycolysis, see figure 5. During this first phase, phosphate is added to the glucose molecule.

The glucose molecule is now split into two three-carbon glyceraldehyde- 3 -phosphate (PGAL) molecules. This phase of glycolysis cannot occur without the input of energy and phosphate from two molecules of ATP. In the second phase of glycolysis (steps 6 - 10 in figure 5), energy harvesting begins, firstly with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH by the oxidation of PGAL, storing some of the energy from glucose in NADH's energy rich electrons and secondly enough energy is released to add a second phosphate group to PGAL, forming 1, 3 -bisphosphoglyceric acid. At this point, glycolysis is finally ready to make ATP. Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs when one of the phosphates of 1, 3 -bisphosphoglyceric acid is transferred to ADP. The three-carbon molecule that remains is then rearranged to form phosphoenolpyruvic acid, becoming pyruvate when it gives up its phosphate to a second ADP.

In this way, each PGAL from the first half of glycolysis is used to make two molecules of ATP and one molecule of pyrrhic acid. Through glycolysis, a small amount of the chemical energy that started out in glucose ends up in ATP and NADH, about 5 % of it; most of the energy remains in pyruvate, which under aerobic conditions is used to either make more ATP in the mitochondria via the Krebs cycle or under anaerobic conditions builds up as lactate. The system supports moderate and high intensity exercise that lasts for up to 45 seconds or so. Other sugars can be catabolism by glycolysis via their conversion to molecules that can be fed into the pathway in its first phase: Fructose gt; 2 glyceraldehyde 3 -phosphate Lactose -- > glucose + galactose, Galactose -- > glucose 1 -phosphate -- > glucose 6 -phosphate Mannose -- -> mannose 6 -phosphate -- > fructose 6 -phosphate During periods when glycolysis metabolism exceeds oxidative phosphorylation (Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain) glycolysis's end product; lactate, is passed to the blood and thence to the Liver where it's converted back to glucose; under a process called gluconeogenesis and thence back to the blood and cells as fuel. This is known as the Cori cycle, or lactic acid cycle. III.

Aerobic System (Krebs cycle) using 1. Carbohydrate and 2. Fat. 1. Carbohydrate Summary: The degradation (oxidation) of the 2 -carbon acetyl group of acetyl coenzyme-A (acetyl-CoA) through a cyclic sequence called the Krebs cycle (KC). Carbohydrate enters the cycle through the conversion of one glucose molecule to two pyruvate molecules that are then in turn converted to two molecules of acetyl-CoA. Fatty acids are readily used in the system and this is covered in section 2 below.

Electrons in the oxidation's are transferred to NAD and to FAD, and a pyrophosphate bond is generated in the form of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). This high-energy phosphate is readily transferred to ADP to form ATP. As Figure 6 illustrates, this is a truly continuous cycle. Net reaction: Acetyl-CoA + 2 H 2 O + 3 NAD+ + Pi + GDP + FAD -- -> 2 CO 2 + 3 NADH + GTP + CoA-SH + FADH 2 + 2 H+ Details: Krebs cycle (KC) or the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC) or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA), occurs in mitochondria and is the final common catabolic pathway to completely oxidase fuel molecules (monosaccharides and free fatty acids (FFAs) ) under aerobic conditions.

Sir Hans Krebs worked out the details of the cycle in the 1930 's. Two carbons enter the cycle as acetyl-CoA and two carbons leave as CO 2. In the course of the cycle, four oxidation-reduction reactions take place to yield reduction potential in the form of three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH 2. A high-energy phosphate bond (GTP) is also formed. Pyruvate, the product of anaerobic glycolysis, is produced in the cytosol. It's moved into the mitochondrial matrix by active transport where it's used to form acetyl-CoA by oxidative decarboxylation; this forms the link between aerobic and anaerobic carbohydrate catabolism and thus is also termed 'the common degradation product'.

The first reaction of the cycle occurs when acetyl-CoA transfers its two-carbon acetyl group to the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate, forming citrate, a six-carbon compound. The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing first one and then a second carboxyl group as carbon dioxide. Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the KC, three molecules of NAD+ are reduced to NADH. In Step 6, electrons are transferred to the electron acceptor FAD rather than to NAD+. Because two acetyl-CoA molecules result from each glucose, the cycle must turn twice to process each molecule.

At the end of each turn of the cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate is left, and the cycle is ready for another turn. Only four moles of ATP are produced directly by a substrate-level phosphorylation with each turn of the KC, this is not much more than the two moles from glycolysis. The rest of the ATP that is formed during aerobic respiration is produced by the electron transport system and chemi osmosis see figure 7. 2. Fat Summary: The process of fatty acid (FA) oxidation is termed b-oxidation (beta oxidation) since it occurs through the sequential removal of 2 -carbon units by oxidation at the b-carbon position of the fatty acyl-CoA molecule.

Each round of b-oxidation produces one mole of NADH, one mole of FADH 2 and one mole of acetyl-CoA, which then enters the K...


Free research essays on topics related to: creatine phosphate, fatty acids, 2 h 2 o, citric acid, lactic acid

Research essay sample on 2 H 2 O Creatine Phosphate

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