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... ers that can lead to violence. The most common rivalries are school rivalries. Starting as far back as 1899 the students of Colorado School of Mines and those of Colorado College would celebrate victory by using dynamite to blow up the rivals goal posts (Taylor, 1992). During one game the presidents of the universities promoted the final game, as The top college in Colorado will win (Taylor, 1992). By game time, most students from both schools were there to cheer their teams on.
When Colorado College was down their fans, frustrated by the score and the name-calling, stormed the field at half time where a riot broke out. When rivalry was claimed to be a factor it was no longer promoted, and violence diminished (Taylor, 1992). A similar example of rivalry leading to hostility occurred in the 1999 Red Feather game Banting vs. Westminster.
To encourage attendance and raise money for charities both schools had pep rallies to pump up the students by using music, videos and chants. During half time the two schools emerged towards the center of the field taunting each other. The organizers of the rallies intent on boosting ticket sales inadvertently encouraged spectator violence. There is an increase in violence following sporting events promoting rivalry as compared to regular promotion, as seen in professional boxing following a highly talked about match. The promoters in boxing do everything they can to make sure the matches turn out violent to satisfy the crowd. David C.
Phillips a sociologist studied the rate of homicides following highly publicized heavyweight championship fights. The survey was done the 3 weeks following each of 18 highly publicized bouts from 1973 - 1978 compared to those bouts with normal publicity (Davidson, 1983). Phillips found that there were 193 more murders, in the surrounding areas, after the promoted fights as compared to the norms (Davidson, 1983). After the highly promoted Muhammad Ali vs. Joe Frazier fight on October 1, 1975, the murder rate shot up thirty-two percent (Davidson, 1983).
Phillips theory is people see how violence is prized in the boxing ring and come to believe that violence outside the ring will also be rewarded (Davidson, 1983). The rewards however, are the financial rewards to the owners, through increased ticket sales and media advertising. Spectator violence may be parallel to violence in the society. For example in a violent society, play will be violent, whereas in a peaceful society play will be more peaceful. The make up of the social group contributes to the possibility of violence. Spectators can be divided into different social classes and the event advertised in areas where a particular social group is targeted for ticket sales.
Often working class males are targeted, as their values and attitudes of aggressiveness, fearlessness and toughness are well suited to competitive sports (Bonney & Giulianotti, 1994). They are likely to be the fans that are betting on the game or are there for the thrills (Berger, 1990). These fans are more likely to attend contact sporting events such as rugby and to be violent, compared to the upper class fans who analyze the game are more likely to attend a cricket match. In the sport soccer, hooligans who dominate the crowds are mainly males who generally act in rough, noisy behavior (Taylor, 1992). They have lawless fun, fighting spectators, throwing objects and vandalizing property. Most hooligans are from the working class.
They have low ambitions, violent behavior and high stress levels (Bonney & Giulianotti, 1994). They act out their frustrations, like the Roman working class, by attending sporting events where they loose their individualities. Fans in Glasgow, Scotland, trampled sixty-six persons to death when they tried to return to the stadium they had just left upon hearing that a last-minute goal had been scored. (Berger, 1982). Hooliganism gives the organization of a team motivation with their traditional cheers and it builds the atmosphere which builds a team Less Davis, management of Peru's soccer organization (Taylor, 1992). Major soccer teams target this low-income social class because it brings atmosphere to the game and alcohol sales and profits increase (Schumacher, 1975).
In marketing ticket sales for most team sports, owners target males nineteen to forty-five. Sixty three percent of males and twenty percent of females in that age range are involved with sports whether they participate in them, or follow them (Oliver, 1971). Team owners often exclusively target males, resulting in an increase of ticket sales and merchandise. However, when males are bonded they often act violently emphasizing their masculinity, machismo, bravery and fighting skills (Tiger, 1970). Many teams in the American Baseball League in the 1970 s were having problems concerning fan violence, and found the main instigators were males.
They changed the games to Sunday, traditionally a family day and encouraged female fans by admitting them free. With women and family present the men were less likely to loose their individuality and act violently as a group. The results for the next 5 years were positive as fan violence decreased by 30 percent (Berger, 1990). By studying the occurrences, degrees, and causes of fan violence over history, owners are able to decrease the incidents of fan violence while maintaining profits and entertainment value of their organization. Slowly but effectively owners, teams, coaches and professional leagues are creating solutions to minimize fan violence. The American Baseball League, National Baseball League and the National Basketball Association participate in TEAM (Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management), which is a program for training everyone from vendors to ushers in handling people who have had too much to drink (Berger, 1982).
Many of the NFL teams have moved their tailgate parties outside the stadium to eliminate the hostility caused by loud rock bands on the premises (Berger. 1990). Security cameras have been installed in many of the soccer stadiums and transportation centers to games, spotting the fans that cause the violence, and acting as deterrents for others. Controlled drinking areas, entrance controlled security checks, and increased visible security personnel are measures, which have helped to reduce fan violence in all sports. Most important, the owners need to be aware that some of their actions to benefit their organization have an indirect influence on the factors for fan violence.
References Berger, G. (1990). Violence And Sports. New York: Library of Congress-in-Publication Data Johnson, O. (1988 August 8). Sports and Suds. Sports Illustrated, pp. 70 - 72 Aye, D. (1979). Blood and Guts.
New York: Paddington Press Chapman, A. (1988, January 19). Violence Jeopardizes Tourney. Newsday, p. A 4 Davidson, K. (1983, May 3). Study Links Boxing, Homicide. Newsday, p.
A 7 Berger, M. (1982). Sports Medicine. New York: Crowell Hazelton, L. (1989, April-May). British Soccer: The Deadly Game. New York Times Magazine, pp. 40 - 43 Robinson, L. (1998). Crossing The Line.
Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Taylor, R. (1992, June 16). Football and its Fans. St. Martins Press, p. B 3 web 04 1974.
html Schumacher, E. F. (1975). Small is beautiful: Economics as if people mattered. New York: Harper and Row Tiger, L. (1970). Men In Groups.
New York: Vintage. Bonney, N. , & Giulianotti, R. (1994). Football Violence and Social Identity. New York: Route ledge Oliver, C. (1971).
High For The Game. New York: Morrow.
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Research essay sample on Spectator Violence Baseball League
