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... e very explicit in their descriptions of gods and goddesses. Some major Graeco-Roman authors include Caesar, Strabo, Pomporius Mela, Pliny, Athenaeus, Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Diodorus Siculus, Ammianus Marcellinus and Lucan. 7 Although this evidence carries more weight with its detailed inscriptions and manuscripts, these classical writers could have held biases spurred by personal beliefs. We have to take into account that these works are not necessarily factual recordings; they were not designed as proofs for the reader. We should recognise that the authors themselves probably acknowledged cultural differences and created their own perspectives. Hence, the Graeco-Roman authors are not completely reliable, as too many judgements on Celtic mythology prevail in their testimony.
In addition to the cultural differences that could lead to personal biases, there is also the speculation of a cultural ignorance and misinterpretation on behalf of the Romans and Greeks. Observers from the Greek and Roman world commented on the traditions, cults and rituals of their northern, barbarian neighbours. Their testimony has the value of contemporaneity but it has inherent problems of bias, distortion, misunderstanding and omission (Green 1993: 8). Moreover, some authors would intertwine religious identities by using the Roman names of gods for the Celtic gods.
Mixing the names and attributions could lead to confusion about what exactly defined each Celtic deity. Furthermore, the authors religion was based on an entirely different belief system. The Celtic religion was less sophisticated than the Greek and Roman traditions. Henceforth, when reading about the Celtic deities from classical commentators, it is possible that their descriptions were based not on the framework of the Celtic world but on that of the authors world the Graeco-Roman. 8 Thus Mediterranean authors offered little insight into the specific nature of divine beings in Celtic society, and even that cannot be fully credited. The final attempt to elaborate on the higher powers in Celtic mythology comes from archaeological evidence.
The main category of evidence which pertains directly to the pagan Celtic period is that of archaeology, the study of the material culture of Celtic religion: sanctuaries and sacred space; burial customs; ritual behaviour; epigraphy; and iconography (Green 1993: 12). Pieces of evidence frequently came in the form of inscribed altars. Dedications or offerings like these would provide the names of Celtic gods and goddesses. Most of the offerings to Celtic deities, however, offered little explanation of the nature of these gods. Names were given, yet the inscriptions lacked any detailed information about the attributions of the gods. Where the name alone survives on an inscription it is difficult to determine the attribution of that deity, although some indication may be provided from a philological interpretation of the name itself (Chadwick 1997: 156).
Moreover, the complete meaning that a ritual offering implied was unknown, making it hard to establish any representation or symbolization given by the gods. Pictures that accompanied the in scripted names could provide clues; however, the subsequent interpretations would again vary with each observer. As is common in the world of art, one artists perception of an illustration can differ completely from another's. Like any archaeological discoveries, there appears to be difficulties involved with both interpretation and lack of article discovered.
First, archaeologists can deal only with what has survived. When there is not enough to conclude, then the words behave more like an hypothesis that has yet to be tested and probably never will. It is possible to study the artefacts further and search for parallels in time or context, but the outcome can never be certain. Second, ones belief is another persons disbelief in the world of archaeological evidence.
Thus, the archaeological evidence into the nature of Celtic gods and goddesses are merely deductions, or conclusions that breach a closure. The information is highly uncertain, which makes it highly unreliable too. Judgements lead this crusade of discovered archaeological proof, so we can never be completely confident. In the end, we can only offer thoughts on the substantive archaeological evidence that we have collected. This will in turn provide an extremely speculative construction of Celtic mythology, but it will, at least, shed some light on the mysterious underlying world of Celtic gods and goddesses. In summary, exploring the world of the Celtic gods and goddesses has been covered in three areas: Irish and Welsh vernacular literature, Graeco-Roman literature, and archaeology.
The amount of evidence is substantial enough to evaluate the nature of the Celtic gods and goddesses. However, our conclusions may not be accurate. We need to exercise some caution in our use of all three of the sources for Celtic mythology. Each compartment of proof has its flaws. While the archaeological evidence does not contain any predisposition inherent in the literary sources, it does contain interpretations that are variable.
The literary materials and the archaeological evidence have a great risk of error because of too much speculation. In the absence of sound evidence that could support the true nature of Celtic gods and goddesses, we are left to assume what we think they represented in Celtic society. It is easy to assess that the mythology of the Celts is difficult to interpret, therefore, it is not easy to evaluate the nature of early Celtic gods and goddesses. What we lack (because of the virtual non-literacy of Iron Age Celts) is written testimony from the Celts themselves (Green 1997: 24). Bibliography Chadwick, Nora. The Celts.
England (1997) Penguin Books. Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts. England (1997) Oxford. Dowden, Ken.
Religion and the Romans. England (1992) Bristol Classical Press. Green, Miranda Jane. Celtic Myths. England (1993) British Museum Press. Green, Miranda Jane.
Exploring the World of the Druids. England (1997) Thames and Hudson. Green, Miranda Jane. The Gods of the Celts. United States of America (1993) Alan Sutton. James, Simon.
Exploring the World of the Celts. England (1993) Thames and Hudson. Powell, T. G.
E. The Celts. England (1994) Thames and Hudson. Rankin, David.
Celts and the Classical World. United States of America (1996) Routledge. Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise. Gods and Heroes of the Celts. Ireland (1994) Four Courts Press Ltd.
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Research essay sample on Gods And Goddesses United States Of America
