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Example research essay topic: Stainless Steel Thermal Expansion - 2,066 words

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Metal is the material of our time. It enables architecture to become sculpture; it also expresses technological possibility as well as the time-honored characteristics of quality and permanence. This quotation is a categorical description of stainless steel. Superiority in mechanical properties, distinct characteristics, and variety of options make stainless steel a preeminent choice in material selection. Designers, architects, artisans and others alike have all found applications for this elemental composite. The discovery, as well as its discoverer, is as equally interesting.

Having left school at the age of twelve, Harry Brearley took up the job of a bottle washer in a Sheffield, England chemical laboratory. Through years of self-teaching, he quickly earned a reputation as an expert in the analysis of metallurgical problems. He later became known as the inventor of stainless steel. In 1912, Brown Firth Laboratories sought to develop a steel for the production of rifles in which the thin diameter of the barrel would not erode away. This erosion was in reaction to the extreme heat and discharged gasses created in firing. Brearley was quickly employed and began to experiment with Chromium mixtures to reduce the atomic weight of steel so as to allow for a denser barrel.

To determine the resistance to wear, he needed to etch samples of the new alloy with an acid to examine the grain structure. Finding a strong resistance to even nitric acid, Brearley realized the significance of his new mixture. Independent from his employers, he had cutlery knives formed from his restless steel. A friend and local chef found that the new knives not only were rustproof, but also remained unstained by vinegar and dubbed them stainless steel. (6) Since then, experiments with the amounts of Chromium added have expanded to numerous grades and applications.

The process of creating steels, stainless or any of its other forms begins with the basic material of Iron ore. Iron ore is a naturally occurring resource, comprised of iron, oxygen, sulfur and silicon. The iron is refined in a blast furnace, using coke (a porous form of carbon), limestone and heated air as a catalyst. In the refining process, the carbon in the coke absorbs the oxygen from the raw ore while the limestone separates the silicates. The ending product is an iron-iron carbide, also known as raw steel. (5) Three distinct forms of iron are discussed in the manufacturing of steel products. These are ferrite, austenite and cementite and are essentially iron crystals formed during the cooling process.

Cooled the quickest, cementite has the largest grain crystals and is the hardest, followed by austenite and the softest, ferrite. Manipulating the cooling process allows the creation of varying amounts of the different crystal types; this results in a wide array of different steel products and the properties unique to each. There are five main classifications of steel. Closely related, the first three are low carbon, medium carbon, and high carbon. Low carbon steel, contains less the 0. 2 % carbon by weight. This steel is available in rolled sheets and is often stamped into a desired shape, such as car bodies.

The next class is medium carbon steel, with 0. 4 % carbon content by weight. This form of steel has an equal composition of ferrite (soft) and cementite (hard) iron. A popular manifestation of this type of steel is perlite, know for its iridescent finish. The austenite is formed in perlite during a more rapid cooling process, making it a sub-category of medium steel. High carbon steel, the third classification, contains nearly 0. 8 % carbon. While extremely durable, it is also difficult to form and is often used it railroad rails and spikes.

Manipulating the cooling process of medium carbon steel creates the fourth category of steel, martensite. The creation process is similar to that of perlite, except that the austenite is cooled too rapidly to allow it to fully dissolve and become perlite. The large crystal structure lends martensite extreme hardness, but this also means it is brittle and has very little impact resistance. This disadvantage can be addressed by locally tempering the metal. Applying a heat source, such as a torch, and immersing in cool water repeatedly is often necessary for steel tools. A chisel tip or leading edge needs to be hard, but the remainder needs to retain impact resistance.

Tempering has been a staple for blacksmiths for centuries, and allows martensite to be the predominate steel in producing metalworking tools. The final category of steel is the alloy steels. By adding other elements, steel can be manufactured to contain virtually any desired properties and results in the creation of countless patented subcategories. Alloy steel must contain at maximum 1. 65 % manganese, 0. 6 % silicon, and 0. 6 % copper by weight to be considered within this classification, though other elements may be added.

U. S. Steel Corporation has recently developed Cor-Ten, comprised additionally of Cr-Si-Cu-Ni-P molecules to offer a highly durable and corrosive resistant structural steel. (1) Further manipulation of the elemental compounds result in a product custom designed for any environmental conditions, be it salt water, highly acidic atmospheres or cryogenic temperatures. The most recognized type of alloy steel is stainless steel. Stainless steel is produced by the addition of 10 - 20 % of both nickel and chromium in late stage refining. Due to the multitude of manipulative factors of the steel making procedure, including cooling process and elemental make-up, innumerable varieties of stainless steel are available.

Three different systems are used in the nomenclature of these products. (12) The first system utilizes the metallurgical structure-referring to the dominate iron present-ferrite, austenite, cementite or duplex (equal ferrite and austenite). The second system, Grade, is the most commonly used. This method creates a table listing the various stainless steels in order of elemental content by weight. For example, Grade 404 would have a higher content of carbon, manganese, silicon and copper (among others) than would Grade 403.

The third system, Unified Numbering System (UNS) is similar to the grade method, but allows for the inclusion of products between the grade system. Grade 404 in UNS is s 40400 and grade 403 is s 40300, which allows for subtle variations between the two. The most common stainless steels used are those in the austenites classification, particularly grades 304 and 316. Stainless steel is a readily available material in most of its grades. Sizes produced depend on the grade requested. Sizes do vary between manufactures and can often be fabricated to custom sizes.

For sheets, specifications are made regarding thickness, width and length. (See next page for sheet sizes commonly available in various UNS grades) (10) Hot Rolled Quarto Plate Size Range For Standard Grades MM 1000 13751500 2000 2032 25002600 2800 3000 31003200 5. 00 1 1 1 1 1 1 6. 000010. 050. 0100. 0105. 0 Hot Rolled, Annealed and Pickled Note: Grades, sizes and finishes outside this standard program, as well as plate, edge prepared for welding can Courtesy Avesta Sheffield Steel (10) Rolls of stainless steel are available in various thicknesses and commonly widths of 1000 mm, 1250 mm, and 1500 mm. Custom sizes are also available through many steel manufactures. Thermal expansion is the most important structural factor to consider when working with stainless steel. Since the conductivity (ability to transfer heat evenly over the entire metal object) is low, welding during installation causes huge localized temperature increases, which leads to surface distortion or warping, as well as a weakening of the area. Compensating for this tendency involves placing copper or aluminum bars around the welded area to transfer the heat away from the surface, and basic measures such as using the minimum welding amperage required for a consistent weld. (7) Furthermore, architectural applications with long runs of stainless steel, such as roof tops, uneven heating over the surface can result in disproportionate expansion and buckling. Expansion joints every 7 - 12 meters at least 6 mm thick are recommended to avoid any potential structural failure.

A similar method must also be used in piping system to prevent rupture. Flexible joints or ball joints are employed at the end of stainless steel pipes, since gaps in the run of the pipe are not practical. For exact thermal expansion rates of various grades, see table below. Typical physical properties - Annealed condition Mean Coefficient of Thermal Thermal Expansion (b) Conductivity Grade Elastic type No. (kg / m 3) (a) 0 - 100 C 0 - 315 C 0 - 538 C At At GPa 100 C 500 C m / m /C m / m /C m / m /C W/m. K W/m. K 302 S 30200 8000 193 17. 2 17. 8 18. 4 16. 2 21. 5 302 B S 30215 8000 193 16. 2 18. 0 19. 4 15. 9 21. 6 303 S 30300 8000 193 17. 2 17. 8 18. 4 16. 2 21. 5 304 S 30400 8000 193 17. 2 17. 8 18. 4 16. 2 21. 5 304 L S 30403 8000 193 17. 2 17. 8 18. 4 16. 3 21. 5 304 N S 30451 8000 196 17. 2 17. 8 18. 4 16. 3 21. 5 314 S 31400 7800 200 - 15. 1 - 17. 5 20. 9 316 S 31600 8000 193 15. 9 16. 2 17. 5 16. 2 21. 5 316 N S 31651 8000 196 15. 9 16. 2 17. 5 14. 4 - 317 S 31700 8000 193 15. 9 16. 2 17. 5 16. 2 21. 5 317 L S 31703 8000 200 16. 5 - 18. 1 14. 4 - 321 S 32100 8000 193 16. 6 17. 2 18. 6 16. 1 22. 2 409 S 40900 7800 200 11. 7 12. 0 12. 4 24. 9 - 410 S 41000 7800 200 9. 9 11. 4 11. 6 24. 9 28. 7 416 S 41600 7800 200 9. 9 11. 0 11. 6 24. 9 28. 7 430 S 43000 7800 200 10. 4 11. 0 11. 4 26. 1 26. 3 430 F S 43020 7800 200 10. 4 11. 0 11. 4 26. 1 26. 3 431 S 43100 7800 200 10. 2 12. 1 - 20. 2 - 434 S 43400 7800 200 10. 4 11. 0 11. 4 - 26. 3 631 S 17700 7800 204 11. 0 11. 6 - 16. 4 21. 8 (c) 1 % flow in 10, 000 hours at 540 C If dimensional strength is a deciding factor in material selection, steels are oft the chosen option.

Austenetic grades of stainless steel can be hardened though cold-rolling. (4) This involves rolling newly formed sheet metal between cold drums to reduce the thickness required to achieve the desired strength. The creation of the duplex grades offers yet another option in strength-to-weigh materials. Yield strength is a measurement of pounds of pressure per square inch (psi), and indicates the mass that can be supported without any damage to the metal. Annealing during the manufacturing phase can increase the weight a grade of steel can support.

This process involves heating metal to a specific temperature, holding that temperature for an extended period of time, and then slowly cooling. Below is a table showing yield strength for popular grades of stainless steel, as well as ultimate strength, or the maximum supportable mass before rupture. Grade Yield Strength Ultimate Strength 304 30, 000 psi 70, 000 psi 316 25, 000 psi 70, 000 psi 201 38, 000 psi 95, 000 psi 401 32, 000 psi 60, 000 psi 430 35, 000 psi 60, 000 psi Since several processes are used to accomplish strength ratings, the manufacturer or distributor should be consulted to create the selected grade with an appropriate psi capacity. Resistance to pollution and moisture corrosion is another appealing characteristic of stainless steel.

Rust, an oxide formed from a chemical reaction between Carbon and Oxygen, is a familiar sight on steel; in stainless steel, Chromium in the steel mixture reacts with oxygen present in the atmosphere, forming an oxide barrier. (7) The Chromium essentially rusts first. This thin molecular covering actually prevents oxygen from coming in contact with the Carbon in the steel. This invisible barrier also prevents other corrosive agents, such as acid rain, from corroding the metal. Note that the oxide barrier can be compromised by chloride solutions. The chlorine i...


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