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... Earth and other heavenly bodies. Thus, part of Copernican theory would be correct. In addition, while studying the Sun, he furthered his conclusion on floating bodies, and in 1612, his Treatise on Floating Bodies was published. "To modern historians of science, the discourse marks Galileo's first entry into experimental physics and forms the basis for his subsequent enduring work in mechanics" (Reston, 48). During this time, he would also reveal that Venus had phases of shading similar to the moon. "The discovery established that planets are opaque objects which shine only by reflecting sunlight, something which surprised even Kepler, as he confessed to Galileo" (Sharratt, 89). This further supported the Copernicus theory.
However, there was much opposition to Galileo's findings, because "Copernicanism was slowly but visibly threatening to topple tradition" (North, 336). This alarmed the Vatican, for nothing could change the Biblical ways. With all the controversy surrounding Galileo's discoveries, many began to speak out against him, especially those religious individuals who felt that they could gain more power politically by debunking Galileo's work. Galileo got word of Romes concerns with the new science. He eventually went to Rome to defend his discoveries. The meetings that took place in 1613 proved a success, since his discoveries actually impressed some of the Cardinals.
However, there were many individuals of the Holy Scripture, who continued to speak out against Galileo's practices. They referred to his beliefs as witchcraft and a total disregard for the Word of God. A Dominican friar known as Tommaso Caccini spoke out in public sermons to large crowds of people. Caccini was an explosive speaker that accused Galileo of heresy, which was an accusation that many though twice about before speaking, especially of that towards an influential figure. The word was spreading quickly through the land, and it was not long before Galileo would come to defend his discoveries again. It was in 1616, during January, that Galileo would work on discourse, The Ebb and Flow of the Seas, in hopes to impress individuals into his other beliefs.
It was as early as 1597 that his mind was working on this subject, when he wrote to Kepler about his Copernicus belief and supported it by reason of the tides. In addition, in 1610, he would again refer to the tides when he observed the satellites of Jupiter and their motions. He was hoping to gain support from individuals in the Vatican. However, this time there was an influential group of individuals who were ready to oppose his findings. Among them was Caccini, who cleverly quoted scripture, in a defense to the old science views that pointed to the Earth as the center of the universe.
On February 25, 1616, an inquisition of the Vatican met in order to deal with the issues, and the outcome was a disgrace to science. In their conclusion, although it did not mention Galileo, they stated, It has come to the knowledge of the sacred congregation that the false Pythagorean doctrine, namely concerning the movement of the Earth and immobility of the sun, taught by Nicolaus Copernicus, and altogether contrary to Holy Scripture, is already spread about and received by many persons. Therefore, lest any opinion of this kind insinuate itself to the detriment of Catholic truth, the congregation has decreed that the works of Nicolaus Copernicus be suspended until they are corrected. (Reston, 167) Galileo knew that if he spoke out against the church, he would be committing suicide, so he left Rome, and in a letter to a friend he wrote, "Of all the hatreds, none is greater than that of ignorance against knowledge" (Reston, 171). Fortunately, during this time he finished his discourse on The Ebb and Flow of the Seas, which later would prove to be beneficial, since some of the Cardinals of the Vatican found it most intriguing. In 1617 at fifty-three years old, Galileo fled to Florence and took residence at the Bellosguardo. This was his place for fourteen years, and it was here that he would begin his journey back to an elevated position in the scientific community.
His first project included working a system of navigation that included using Jupiter's satellites as a mark in the sky. By 1617, he had completed a device known as a Jovilabe, which worked in conjunction with tables. He also invented the cela tone, a helmet with two telescopes mounted on it, so the captain of a ship could view the satellites without removing his hands from the ships wheel. It eventually was used as a secret weapon of war, since it enabled Captains during the day, to locate enemy ships at great distances. In 1618, a few comets appeared in the night sky, and this would bring much controversy about the heavens. Although Galileo remained discreet about the issue, he was still well informed of the great event.
When one of his adversaries, Horatio Grassi, wrote a pamphlet on the subject and included debunking the Copernican theory, Galileo sought to strike back. Therefore, it was in 1619, that Galileo would publish The Discourse on Comets, through one of his disciples, Mario Guiducci. Although Galileo did not put his name on the document, it was soon known who was responsible. Importantly, it created much controversy in the scientific community, which included the church. In addition, at this same time, Kepler published the Epitome of Copernican Astronomy and Harmony of the World, which escalated the controversy. However, because the Catholic Church and the Protestants were at war, no action would be taken against these documents.
In 1621, Pope Paul V died which brought on a new period. When Gregory XV was appointed the position, Galileo was feeling more confident of his scientific views, and since the church was now in victory over the Protestants, the mood was perfect for the occasion. Now it was time for Galileo to make his stand. Galileo started his quest by publishing the Assayer in 1622, which called upon a new class of scientists to break the chains from the ancient views. His advisories plead with the Vatican to dismiss his work, but the New Pope found the book to be refreshing and at the same time, entertaining. This marked a victory for Galileo and his followers.
Soon after, Gregory the XV passed away. Cardinal Maffeo Barberini would become the next Pope, known as Urban VIII. Galileo had been a long time friend of the new Pope, which meant great things for the scientist. He knew that the Pope would tend to view his ideas bias.
In 1623, Galileo completed his work on improving the microscope. It was a success not only among his pears, but the Catholic Church found that looking at organisms in a drop of water gave a whole new perspective on science. The pope was impressed with Galileo's findings and commended him. The Pope also wrote a letter on his behalf which stated, "His fame will shine on earth so long as Jupiter and his satellites shine in heaven" (Reston 195). Because of all this praise, in 1624, Galileo went back to Florence and decided to begin work on what would become one of the most influential scientific books in Western civilization, Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican. However, this book ultimately destroyed him due to the nature of its content.
Upon his return to Florence, Galileo began working hard on the book. He worked diligently for three years and was devoted to finishing the project. The content of his book was merely a summery of his scientific life. He touched on many controversies and spoke out of his beliefs. How he did it was masterful, "Galileo wrote the book as a dialog of three speakers: one defending the geostatic side, another taking the Copernican view, and a third being an uncommitted observer that listens to both sides and accepts the arguments that seem to survive critical scrutiny" (Finocchiaro, 43).
He wrote the book in a third party way in hopes that the Cardinals of the church would accept it as an informative work about the two opposing views. Galileo hoped that the church would publish the book, but in time with changes taking place in the Vatican, he decided to go behind their backs and publish it in Florence in 1631. This proved to be a mistake, since Galileo's adversaries received the book around the same time the Pope did, thus when they lashed out against the book, He was not around to defend his work. Further, the anti Copernican's planted in the Popes head a false belief that he was on of the characters in the book, which turned out to be the individual who supported the Copernican point of view. This was an insult to the Pope, and friend or no friend; something had to be done about it. It was not long before Galileo would be summonsed to the Holy Court of the Vatican to stand trial and justify his work.
He eventually arrived, and it seemed that everyone was hell bent on convicting him of heresy. The trial took a year, and during this time he was imprisoned to the grounds, and kept under complete surveillance. He grew weaker and more depressed as the months went by, and in 1633, the conclusion came without notice. They found him guilty of heresy based on the fact that in 1616, the Vatican swore him to silence of such beliefs. They felt that this book violated the ruling from 1616.
They sentenced him to life at the Vatican prison, however in a final plea, they allowed him to stay with one of the Cardinals, who would rehabilitate him. They later moved him to his own place 20 miles outside of Florence where he would spend the rest of his life bound to an area of the town. It is here that he got somewhat of a revenge on the church. Because of his house arrest, Galileo was able to concentrate on his studies. He went back to his works on mechanics and the laws of motion. By 1636, he completed his final and greatest book, Discourse on Two New Sciences.
His book was a work of pure science that focused on Physics and advanced his new science of motion. He again used the three characters that existed in his previous book. However they were much older and wise in that they spoke nothing of Copernican and the motion of the Earth, rather they focused on science and motion in the physical world. Eventually, Isaac Newton would perfect Galileo's work fifty years later. Galileo had his new book published in Holland, and it was not long before many individuals sought to confer with the master of science. He was an idol among many outside of his country.
It was a shame that the Vatican had taken the measures they had against such an influential individual that sough to improve science as a way of life. Galileo died December 20, 1641 blind and in pain, but with dignity. Galileo's scientific discoveries of the universe brought much controversy in a time when the Catholic Church ruled the land. He brought new ideas to the forefront of science that challenged scripture, and the result was the beginning of the scientific revolution. Further, on October 31, 1992, Pope John Paul II formally resolved the Galileo issue. In the Cardinals speech, he stated, "This subjective error of judgment, so clearly to us today, led the church to a disciplinary measure from which Galileo had much to suffer.
These mistakes must be frankly recognized, as you, Holy Father, have requested" (Sharratt, 218). This was an apology by the Catholic Church for one of many unresolved cases, in which individuals suffered, because of the word of God. Galileo's work influences our scientists to this day, not to mention the millions of people who read the headlines of the New York Times on the morning of November 1, 1992. It read, "AFTER 350 YEARS, VATICAN SAYS GALILEO WAS RIGHT: IT MOVES" (Reston, 284). Surely, there must have been someone curious about the news, but then again, most peoples faith had gone to hell in a hand basket. Moreover, over the years, the Catholic Church has wondered why.
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